Tài liệu Introductory Chemistry for Today, 7th Edition - Spencer L. Seager, Michael R. Slabaugh

Introductory Chemistry for Today Seventh Edition Spencer L. Seager Weber State University Michael R. Slabaugh Weber State University Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Introductory Chemistry for Today, Seventh Edition Spencer L. Seager, Michael R. Slabaugh Publisher: Charles Hartford Developmental Editor: Alyssa White Assistant Editor: Ashley Summers Editorial Assistant: Jon Olafsson © 2011, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 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For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email protected] Creative Director: Rob Hugel Art Director: John Walker Print Buyer: Rebecca Cross Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Text: Bob Kauser Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Image: Don Schlotman Production Service: Pre-Press PMG Text Designer: Ellen Pettengill Library of Congress Control Number: 2009942740 ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73430-1 ISBN-10: 0-538-73430-2 Brooks/Cole 20 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Photo Researcher: The Bill Smith Group Copy Editor: Denise Rubens OWL Producers: Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein, and David Hart in the Center for Educational Software Development at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and Cow Town Productions Cover Designer: RHDG/Riezebos Holzbaur Design Group Cover Image: David Muir/Getty Images Compositor: Pre-Press PMG Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09 Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Brooks/Cole, visit www.cengage.com/brookscole. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com. To our grandchildren: Nate and Braden Barlow, and Megan and Bradley Seager Alexander, Annie, Christian, Elyse, Foster, Megan, and Mia Slabaugh, and Hadyn Hansen This page intentionally left blank About the Authors Spencer L. Seager Spencer L. Seager is a professor of chemistry at Weber State University, where he served as chemistry department chairman from 1969 until 1993. He teaches general chemistry at the university and is also active in projects to help improve chemistry and other science education in local elementary schools. He received his B.S. degree in chemistry and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry from the University of Utah. Other interests include making minor home repairs, reading history of science and technology, listening to classical music, and walking for exercise. Michael R. Slabaugh Michael R. Slabaugh is a senior fellow at Weber State University, where he teaches the year-long sequence of general chemistry, organic chemistry, and biochemistry. He received his B.S. degree in chemistry from Purdue University and his Ph.D. degree in organic chemistry from Iowa State University. His interest in plant alkaloids led to a year of postdoctoral study in biochemistry at Texas A&M University. His current professional interests are chemistry education and community involvement in science activities, particularly the State Science and Engineering Fair in Utah. He also enjoys the company of family, hiking in the mountains, and fishing the local streams. v This page intentionally left blank Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 CHA PTER Matter, Measurements, and Calculations 1 CHAPTER CHAPTER Solutions and Colloids CHA PTER 2 Atoms and Molecules 44 CHA PTER 3 CHAPTER CHA PTER 9 264 10 95 CHA PTER 137 CHA PTER 337 12 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 6 307 11 Organic Compounds: Alkanes 5 The States of Matter 239 Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 4 Chemical Reactions 8 Acids, Bases, and Salts Forces Between Particles CHAPTER 201 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium Electronic Structure and the Periodic Law 68 CHAPTER 7 374 166 vii This page intentionally left blank Contents CHAPTER 1 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 1.1 A Central Science Matter, Measurements, and Calculations 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 What Is Matter? 2 Properties and Changes 3 A Model of Matter 5 Classifying Matter 8 Measurement Units 12 The Metric System 13 Large and Small Numbers 18 Significant Figures 22 Using Units in Calculations 26 1.10 Calculating Percentages 28 1.11 Density 30 Concept Summary 34 Key Terms and Concepts 34 Key Equations 35 Exercises 35 Additional Exercises 41 Allied Health Exam Connection 42 Chemistry for Thought 43 Jochen Sands/Digital Vision/Getty Images 1.9 3 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 1.2 Cosmetics: Complex Mixtures and Complex Regulations 4 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 1.3 Green Chemistry 18 29 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 1.1 Health Information on the Web 31 AT THE COUNTER 1.1 Nonprescription Medicines 33 STUDY SKILLS 1.1 Help with Calculations CHA PTER 2 Atoms and Molecules 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 44 Symbols and Formulas 45 Inside the Atom 47 Isotopes 49 Relative Masses of Atoms and Molecules 50 Isotopes and Atomic Weights 54 Avogadro’s Number: The Mole 55 The Mole and Chemical Formulas 59 Concept Summary 62 Key Terms and Concepts 62 Exercises 62 Additional Exercises 65 Allied Health Exam Connection 66 Chemistry for Thought 67 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 2.1 Diamonds: From Gems to iPods 48 AT THE COUNTER 2.1 Calcium Supplements: Which Type Is Best? 51 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 2.1 Are You at Risk for Osteoporosis? 52 STUDY SKILLS 2.1 Help with Mole Calculations 60 CHA PTER 3 Electronic Structure and the Periodic Law 68 3.1 3.2 3.3 The Periodic Law and Table 69 Electronic Arrangements in Atoms 71 The Shell Model and Chemical Properties 74 ix Electronic Configurations 76 3.5 Another Look at the Periodic Table 80 3.6 Property Trends within the Periodic Table Concept Summary 89 Key Terms and Concepts 90 Exercises 90 Additional Exercises 93 Allied Health Exam Connection 93 Chemistry for Thought 94 3.4 CHA PTER Chemical Reactions 137 84 Chemical Equations 138 Types of Reactions 139 5.3 Redox Reactions 140 5.4 Decomposition Reactions 145 5.5 Combination Reactions 145 5.6 Replacement Reactions 146 5.7 Ionic Equations 149 5.8 Energy and Reactions 150 5.9 The Mole and Chemical Equations 151 5.10 The Limiting Reactant 154 5.11 Reaction Yields 156 Concept Summary 157 Key Terms and Concepts 158 Key Equations 158 Exercises 159 Additional Exercises 163 Allied Health Exam Connection 163 Chemistry for Thought 165 AT THE COUNTER 5.1 Antiseptics and Disinfectants 144 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 5.1 The Importance of Color in Your Diet 148 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 5.1 Ozone: The Good and The Bad 151 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 5.2 Air Bag Chemistry 155 STUDY SKILLS 5.1 Help with Oxidation Numbers 156 5.1 5.2 AT THE COUNTER 3.1 Zinc for Colds? The Jury Is Still Out 71 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 3.1 Nano World 79 STUDY SKILLS 3.1 The Convention Hotels Analogy 81 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 3.1 Protecting Children from Iron Poisoning 85 CHA P T E R 4 Forces Between Particles 95 Noble Gas Configurations 96 Ionic Bonding 98 4.3 Ionic Compounds 100 4.4 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds 102 4.5 The Smallest Unit of Ionic Compounds 104 4.6 Covalent Bonding 105 4.7 Polyatomic Ions 110 4.8 Shapes of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions 112 4.9 The Polarity of Covalent Molecules 117 4.10 More about Naming Compounds 120 4.11 Other Interparticle Forces 123 Concept Summary 129 Key Terms and Concepts 129 Exercises 130 Additional Exercises 134 Allied Health Exam Connection 135 Chemistry for Thought 136 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 4.1 Fight Hypertension With Potassium 101 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 4.1 Water: One of Earth’s Special Compounds 106 AT THE COUNTER 4.1 Versatile Zinc Oxide 117 STUDY SKILLS 4.1 Help with Polar and Nonpolar Molecules 122 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 4.2 Nitric Oxide: A Simple but Vital Biological Molecule 125 4.1 Contents Jim West/PhotoLibrary 4.2 x 5 CHAPTER The States of Matter 6.1 AT THE COUNTER 6.1 Cutting Drug Costs with 6 Generics 166 186 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 6.2 Therapeutic Uses of Oxygen Gas 189 STUDY SKILLS 6.1 Which Gas Law to Use 191 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 6.1 Sweating It Out Observed Properties of Matter 167 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter 169 The Solid State 171 6.4 The Liquid State 171 6.5 The Gaseous State 172 6.6 The Gas Laws 173 6.7 Pressure, Temperature, and Volume Relationships 176 6.8 The Ideal Gas Law 180 6.9 Dalton’s Law 182 6.10 Graham’s Law 183 6.11 Changes in State 184 6.12 Evaporation and Vapor Pressure 184 6.13 Boiling and the Boiling Point 186 6.14 Sublimation and Melting 187 6.15 Energy and the States of Matter 188 Concept Summary 192 Key Terms and Concepts 193 Key Equations 193 Exercises 194 Additional Exercises 198 Allied Health Exam Connection 198 Chemistry for Thought 200 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 6.1 Huffing: A Potential Introduction of Children to Drug Abuse 175 180 6.2 6.3 CHA PTER 7 Solutions and Colloids 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 201 Physical States of Solutions 202 Solubility 203 The Solution Process 207 Solution Concentrations 211 Solution Preparation 215 Solution Stoichiometry 218 Solution Properties 220 Colloids 226 Dialysis 228 Concept Summary 230 Key Terms and Concepts 231 Key Equations 231 Exercises 231 Additional Exercises 236 Allied Health Exam Connection 236 Chemistry for Thought 238 AT THE COUNTER 7.1 Oral Rehydration Therapy 210 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 7.1 The Risk of Dehydration During Vigorous Youth Activities 213 STUDY SKILLS 7.1 Getting Started with Molarity Calculations 224 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 7.1 Tears: Solutions for Many Eye Problems 227 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 7.2 Global Warming and a Cooler Europe 229 CHA PTER 8 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium 3660 Group Inc./Custom Medical Stock Photo 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 239 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes 240 Reaction Rates 242 Molecular Collisions 242 Energy Diagrams 245 Factors That Influence Reaction Rates 246 Chemical Equilibrium 248 Contents xi The Position of Equilibrium 250 8.8 Factors That Influence Equilibrium Position Concept Summary 256 Key Terms and Concepts 256 Key Equations 257 Exercises 257 Additional Exercises 261 Allied Health Exam Connection 261 Chemistry for Thought 263 8.7 CHA PTER 252 Radioactivity and Nuclear Processes 307 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 AT THE COUNTER 8.1 Timed-Release Medications 10.6 243 10.7 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 8.1 Hypothermia: Surviving the Big Chill 10.8 249 10.9 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 8.1 The True Value of Platinum and Gold 253 STUDY SKILLS 8.1 Le Châtelier’s Principle in Everyday Life CHA P T E R 256 9 Acids, Bases, and Salts 264 The Arrhenius Theory 265 The Brønsted Theory 265 9.3 Naming Acids 267 9.4 The Self-Ionization of Water 268 9.5 The pH Concept 271 9.6 Properties of Acids 274 9.7 Properties of Bases 277 9.8 Salts 278 9.9 The Strengths of Acids and Bases 281 9.10 Analyzing Acids and Bases 287 9.11 Titration Calculations 289 9.12 Hydrolysis Reactions of Salts 291 9.13 Buffers 292 Concept Summary 296 Key Terms and Concepts 297 Key Equations 297 Exercises 297 Additional Exercises 304 Allied Health Exam Connection 305 Chemistry for Thought 306 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 9.1 Beware the Negative Effects of Acids on Teeth 282 STUDY SKILLS 9.1 Writing Reactions of Acids 286 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 9.1 Do You Have Acid Reflux Disease? 287 AT THE COUNTER 9.1 Heartburn Remedies: Something Old, Something New 295 9.1 Contents Radioactive Nuclei 308 Equations for Nuclear Reactions 309 Isotope Half-Life 312 The Health Effects of Radiation 314 Measurement Units for Radiation 316 Medical Uses of Radioisotopes 319 Nonmedical Uses of Radioisotopes 320 Induced Nuclear Reactions 322 Nuclear Energy 325 Concept Summary 330 Key Terms and Concepts 331 Key Equations 331 Exercises 332 Additional Exercises 334 Allied Health Exam Connection 334 Chemistry for Thought 336 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 10.1 Medical 9.2 xii 10 Imaging 317 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 10.2 Radon: A Chemically Inert Health Risk 321 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 10.1 Is Irradiated Food Safe? 328 AT THE COUNTER 10.1 The Do’s and Don’ts of © Pete Saloutos/CORBIS Buying Prescription Drugs Online 330 CHAPTER 11 Organic Compounds: Alkanes CHEMISTRY AROUND US 11.2 Ice Storms and Deadly Carbon Monoxide 365 337 Carbon: The Element of Organic Compounds 338 11.2 Organic and Inorganic Compounds Compared 339 11.3 Bonding Characteristics and Isomerism 341 11.4 Functional Groups: The Organization of Organic Chemistry 343 11.5 Alkane Structures 346 11.6 Conformations of Alkanes 349 11.7 Alkane Nomenclature 351 11.8 Cycloalkanes 357 11.9 The Shape of Cycloalkanes 359 11.10 Physical Properties of Alkanes 362 11.11 Alkane Reactions 364 Concept Summary 366 Key Terms and Concepts 366 Key Reactions 367 Exercises 367 Additional Exercises 372 Allied Health Exam Connection 372 Chemistry for Thought 373 STUDY SKILLS 11.1 Changing Gears for Organic Chemistry 340 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 11.1 Organic Foods: Are They Safer? More Nutritious? 347 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 11.1 Petroleum: Gold in Your Tank 362 AT THE COUNTER 11.1 Skin Moisturizers: Choosing One That Works 364 11.1 CHA PTER 12 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 374 The Nomenclature of Alkenes 375 The Geometry of Alkenes 379 Properties of Alkenes 382 Addition Polymers 387 Alkynes 391 Aromatic Compounds and the Benzene Structure 392 The Nomenclature of Benzene Derivatives 394 Properties and Uses of Aromatic Compounds 397 Concept Summary 400 Key Terms and Concepts 400 Key Reactions 400 Exercises 401 Additional Exercises 405 Allied Health Exam Connection 405 Chemistry for Thought 405 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 12.1 Watermelon: A Source of Lycopene 377 CHEMISTRY AROUND US 12.2 Seeing the Light 380 STUDY SKILLS 12.1 Keeping a Reaction Card File 386 STUDY SKILLS 12.2 A Reaction Map for Alkenes 389 HOW REACTIONS OCCUR 12.1 The Hydration of Alkenes: An Addition Reaction 392 CHEMISTRY AND YOUR HEALTH 12.1 Beautiful, Brown ... and Overdone 395 AT THE COUNTER 12.1 Smoking: It’s Quitting Time 398 Appendix A The International System of Measurements A-1 Appendix B Answers to Even-Numbered End-of-Chapter Exercises B-1 Appendix C Solutions to Learning Checks Glossary G-1 I-1 © Guy Cali/Corbis Index C-1 Contents xiii Preface The Image of Chemistry We, as authors, are pleased that the acceptance of the previous six editions of this textbook by students and their teachers has made it possible to publish this seventh edition. In the earlier editions, we expressed our concern about the negative image of chemistry held by many of our students, and their genuine fear of working with chemicals in the laboratory. Unfortunately, this negative image not only persists, but seems to be intensifying. Reports in the media related to chemicals or to chemistry continue to be primarily negative, and in many cases seem to be designed to increase the fear and concern of the general public. With this edition, we continue to hope that those who use this book will gain a more positive understanding and appreciation of the important contributions that chemistry makes in their lives. Theme and Organization This edition continues the theme of the positive and useful contributions made by chemistry in our world. Consistent with that theme, we continue to use the chapter opening focus on health care professionals introduced in the second edition. The photos and accompanying brief descriptions of the role of chemistry in each profession continue to emphasize positive contributions of chemistry in our lives. This text is designed to be used in either a two-semester or three-quarter course of study that provides an introduction to general chemistry, organic chemistry, and biochemistry. Most students who take such courses are majoring in nursing, other health professions, or the life sciences, and consider biochemistry to be the most relevant part of the course of study. However, an understanding of biochemistry depends upon a sound background in organic chemistry, which in turn depends upon a good foundation in general chemistry. We have attempted to present the general and organic chemistry in sufficient depth and breadth to make the biochemistry understandable. As with previous editions, this textbook is published in a complete hardcover form and a two-volume paperback edition. One volume of the paperback edition contains all the general chemistry and the first two chapters of organic chemistry from the hardcover text. The second volume of the paperback edition contains all the organic chemistry and biochemistry of the hardcover edition. The availability of the textbook in these various forms has been a very popular feature among those who use the text because of the flexibility it affords them. The decisions about what to include and what to omit from the text were based on our combined 70-plus years of teaching, input from numerous reviewers and adopters, and our philosophy that a textbook functions as a personal tutor to each student. In the role of a personal tutor, a text must be more than just a collection of facts, data, and exercises. It should also help students relate to the material they are studying, carefully guide them through more difficult material, provide them with interesting and relevant examples of chemistry in their lives, and become a reference and a resource that they can use in other courses or their professions. xv New to This Edition In this seventh edition of the text, we have retained features that received a positive reception from our own students, the students of other adopters, other teachers, and reviewers. The retained features are 24 Study Skills boxes that include 5 reaction maps; 4 How Reactions Occur boxes; 44 Chemistry Around Us boxes, including 19 new to this edition. The former feature Over The Counter has been changed to At The Counter and reflects coverage of both prescription and non-prescription health-related products. Twelve of the 24 At The Counter boxes are new to this edition. There are 22 Chemistry and Your Health boxes, with 8 new to this edition. A greatly expanded feature of this seventh edition is the Allied Health Exam Connection that follows the exercises at the end of each chapter. This feature consists of examples of chemistry questions found on typical entrance examinations used to screen applicants to allied health professional programs. In addition, approximately 20% of the end-of-chapter exercises have been changed. d. 22 Allied Health Exam Connection 5.72 What is the oxidation number for nitrogen in HNO3? The following questions are from these sources: 1. Nursing School Entrance Exam © 2005, Learning Express, LLC. a. 22 2. McGraw-Hill’s Nursing School Entrance Exams by Thomas A. Evangelist, Tamara B. Orr and Judy Unrein © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. b. 15 c. 21 d. 25 3. NSEE Nursing School Entrance Exams, 3rd Edition © 2009, Kaplan Publishing. 5.73 The oxidation number of sulfur in the ion SO422 is: 4. Cliffs Test Prep: Nursing School Entrance Exams by Fred N. Grayson © 2004, Wiley Publishing, Inc. 5. Peterson’s Master the Nursing School and Allied Health Entrance Exams, 18th Edition by Marion F. Gooding © 2008, Peterson’s, a Nelnet Company. 5.66 Balance the following redox reaction: Mg(s) 1 H2O(g) S Mg(OH)2(s) 1 H2(g) c. 16 d. 110 5.74 Which of the following is the oxidation number of sulfur in the compound sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3? a. 11 a. Mg(s) 1 H2O(g) S Mg(OH)2(s) 1 H2(g) b. 21 b. Mg(s) 1 4H2O(g) S Mg(OH)2(s) 1 H2(g) c. 12 c. Mg(s) 1 2H2O(g) S Mg(OH)2(s) 1 H2(g) d. Mg(s) 1 H2O(g) S Mg(OH)2(s) 1 a. 22 b. 12 d. 22 1 2 H2(g) 5.75 Which best describes the following redox reaction: 2 Also new to this edition are many new photographs and updated art to further enhance student comprehension of key concepts, processes and preparation. + – 33322_05_Ch05_p137-165_pp2.indd 163 11/13/09 10:35:12 AM + + – © Dr. E. R. Degginger © Dr. E. R. Degginger © Dr. E. R. Degginger + – + Step 1. Put 0.125 mol of solute into a 250-mL flask. – + + 1 – + + – + + – – + + + – – + + – + + – – – + + – – – + + – – + + – – + – – + – + + – 2 Step 2. Add some water and dissolve the solute. 3 Step 3. Fill the flask to the mark with water. Mix thoroughly. Figure 7.8 Preparation of a 0.500 M solution. Use the data given in the figure and show by a calculation that the resulting solution is 0.500 M. 33322_07_Ch07_p201-238_pp2.indd 215 xvi Preface 11/27/09 3:49:09 PM Revision Summary of Seventh Edition: Chapter 1: • • • • • • Several revised figures New photography Revised Examples New Chemistry Around Us: Green Chemistry 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 2: • • • • • • Several revised figures New photography Revised and new Examples New At the Counter: Calcium Supplements: Which Type is Best? 20% new Exercisese Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 3: • • • • Several revised figures New photography 20% new Exercisese Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 4: • • • • • • Several revised figures New photography Revised Examples New Chemistry and Your Health: Fight Hypertension with Potassium 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 5: • • • • • • Several revised figures New photography Revised and new Examples New Chemistry Around Us: Ozone: The Good and the Bad 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 6: • Several revised figures • New photography • New Chemistry and Your Health: Huffing: A Potential Introduction of Children to Drug Abuse • New At the Counter: Cutting Drug Costs with Generics • 20% new Exercises • Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 7: • • • • Several revised figures New photography Revised and new Examples New Chemistry and Your Health: The Risk of Dehydration During Vigorous Youth Activities • 20% new Exercises • Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Preface xvii Chapter 8: • • • • • • Several revised figures New photography New Chemistry and Your Health: Hypothermia: Surviving the Big Chill New Chemistry Around Us: The True Value of Platinum and Gold 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 9: • • • • • • Several revised figures New photography Revised Examples New Chemistry Around Us: Beware the Negative Effects of Acids on Teeth 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 10: • • • • • Several revised figures New photography New At the Counter: The Do’s and Don’ts of Buying Prescription Drugs Online 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 11: • • • • Several revised figures New photography 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Chapter 12: • • • • Several revised figures New photography 20% new Exercises Numerous new Allied Health Connection Questions Features 6 The States of Matter Each chapter has features especially designed to help students study effectively, as well as organize, understand, and enjoy the material in the course. Learning Objectives When you have completed your study of this chapter, you should be able to: 1 Do calculations based on the property of density. (Section 6.1) 2 Demonstrate an understanding of the kinetic molecular theory of matter. (Sections 6.2–6.4) 3 Use the kinetic molecular theory to explain and compare the properties of matter in different states. Chapter Opening Photos. Each chapter opens with a photo of one of the many health care professionals that provide us with needed services. These professionals represent some of the numerous professions that require an understanding of chemistry. (Section 6.5) 4 Do calculations to convert pressure and temperature values into various units. (Section 6.6) 5 Do calculations based on Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and the combined gas law. (Section 6.7) 6 Do calculations based on the ideal gas law. (Section 6.8) 7 Do calculations based on Dalton’s law. (Section 6.9) 8 Do calculations based on Graham’s law. (Section 6.10) 9 Classify changes of state as exothermic or endothermic. (Section 6.11) 10 Demonstrate an understanding of the concepts of vapor pressure and evaporation. (Section 6.12) 11 Demonstrate an understanding of the process of boiling and the concept of boiling point. (Section 6.13) 12 Demonstrate an understanding of the processes of sublimation and melting. (Section 6.14) 13 Do calculations based on energy changes that accompany heating, cooling, or changing the state of a substance. (Section 6.15) Online homework for this chapter may be assigned in OWL. Chapter Outlines and Learning Objectives. At the beginning of each chapter, a list of learning objectives provides students with a convenient overview of what they should gain by studying the chapter. In order to help students navigate through each chapter and focus on key concepts, these objectives are repeated at the beginning of the section in which the applicable information is discussed. The objectives are referred to again in the concept summary at the end of each chapter along with one or two suggested end-of-chapter exercises. By working the suggested exercises, students get a quick indication of how well they have met the stated learning objectives. Thus, students begin each chapter with a set of objectives and end with an indication of how well they satisfied the objectives. Respiratory therapists assist in both the treatment and diagnostic testing of pulmonary function. They dispense gases, vapors, and drug-containing therapeutic aerosols to patients. They also use devices such as a spirometer to measure lung capacity. Gaseous behavior, as represented by the gas laws of this chapter, is an important part of their training. © Jeff Kaufman/Taxi 33322_06_Ch06_p166-200_pp2.indd 166 xviii Preface 11/11/09 11:48:03 AM Key Terms. Identified within the text by the use of bold type, key terms are defined in the margin near the place where they are introduced. Students reviewing a chapter can quickly identify the important concepts on each page with this marginal glossary. A full glossary of key terms and concepts appears at the end of the text. At the Counter. These boxed features contain useful information about health-related products that are readily available to consumers with or without a prescription. The information in each box provides a connection between the chemical behavior of the product and its effect on the body. At The Counter 2.1 Calcium Supplements: Which Type Is Best? In a nutritional context, a supplement provides an amount of a substance that is in addition to the amount normally obtained from the diet. About 99% of the calcium in the body is used to build bones and teeth. During a lifetime, all bones of the body undergo a natural process of buildup and breakdown. The rate of buildup exceeds the rate of breakdown for the first 25–30 years of life for women and the first 30–35 years of life for men. Beyond these times, the rate of breakdown exceeds the rate of buildup, resulting in a gradual decrease in bone density. Consequently, bones become increasingly weakened, brittle, and susceptible to breaking—a condition called osteoporosis. About 50% of women and 13% of men over age 50 suffer a broken bone as a result of osteoporosis. One of the best ways to reduce the risks associated with osteoporosis is to build as much bone as possible during early life when the rate If a calcium supplement is needed, which type is best? Most supplements will contain calcium in one of the following three chemical forms: calcium carbonate (often from oyster shells), calcium citrate or calcium phosphate. It really makes little difference which of these three chemical forms the calcium is in, as all three are absorbed quite well by the body. The important factor in a supplement is the amount of calcium contained in each dose. This amount per dose is generally indicated on the label and typically ranges from 333 mg to 630 mg. The maximum benefit from calcium supplements is obtained when the individual dosage is 500 mg or less. So, supplements with individual dosages greater than 500 mg should be divided and taken in portions throughout the day. An additional consideration is that vitamin D is essential for maximum calcium absorption by the body. For this reason, many calcium supplements include vitamin D in their formulation, and clearly indicate this on their labels. Chemistry Around Us. These boxed features present everyday applications of chemistry that emphasize in a real way the important role of chemistry in our lives. Forty percent of these are new to this edition and emphasize health-related applications of chemistry. Chemistry and Your Health. These boxed features contain current chemistry-related health issues such as “The Importance of Color in Your Diet,” and questions about topics such as safety concerns surrounding genetically modified foods and the relationship between C-reactive protein and heart disease. Chemistry and Your Health 5.1 The Importance of Color in Your Diet Scientific evidence accumulated during the 1990s suggested that diets rich in fruits and vegetables had a protective effect against a number of different types of cancer. Studies showed that simply increasing the levels of vitamins and minerals in the diet did not provide the increased protection. This led to research into the nature of other substances found in fruits and vegetables that are important for good health. As a result of this research, a number of chemical compounds found in plants and called phytonutrients have been shown to be involved in the maintenance of healthy tissues and organs. The mechanism for their beneficial action in the body is not understood for all phytonutrients, but a significant number are known to work as antioxidants that stop harmful oxidation reactions from occurring. The colors of fruits and vegetables help identify those containing beneficial compounds. The table below contains a list of some of the more well-known phytonutrients together with sources, colors, and beneficial actions. The amount of evidence supporting the existence of benefits from phytonutrients is not the same for all those listed in the table. In some cases, the experimental evidence is extensive (e.g., the cancer-blocking behavior of isothiocyanates), while in other cases the listed benefits are based on a limited amount of research and more studies are being done (e.g., the contribution to eye health by anthocyanins). Fruit/Vegetable Examples Phytonutrients Possible Benefits Red Tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit Lycopene (a carotenoid) Protect against prostate, cervical, and pancreatic cancer and heart and lung disease © iStockphoto.com/ DNY59 Fruit/Vegetable Color 33322_02_Ch02_p044-067_pp2.Indd 51 11/11/09 11:00:17 AM Examples. To reinforce students in their problem-solving skill development, complete step-by-step solutions for numerous examples are included in each chapter. Learning Checks. Short self-check exercises follow examples and discussions of key or difficult concepts. A complete set of solutions is included in Appendix C. These allow students to measure immediately their understanding and progress. Preface xix Study Skills. Most chapters contain a Study Skills feature in which a challenging topic, skill, or concept of the chapter is addressed. Study suggestions, analogies, and approaches are provided to help students master these ideas. Study Skills 14.1 A Reaction Map for Aldehydes and Ketones This reaction map is designed to help you master organic reactions. Whenever you are trying to complete an organic reaction, use these two basic steps: (1) Identify the functional group that is to react, and (2) identify the reagent that is to react with the functional group. If the reacting functional group is an aldehyde or a ketone, find the reagent in the summary diagram, and use the diagram to predict the correct products. Aldehyde or Ketone H2, Pt (O) Oxidation If aldehyde Carboxylic acid alcohol Hemi formation Hydrogenation If ketone No reaction If aldehyde Primary alcohol If ketone Secondary alcohol If aldehyde If ketone Hemiacetal Hemiketal alcohol Acetal Ketal How Reactions Occur. The mechanisms of representative organic reactions are presented in four boxed inserts to help students dispel the mystery of how these reactions take place. Concept Summary. Located at the end of each chapter, this feature provides a concise review of the concepts and includes suggested exercises to check achievement of the learning objectives related to the concepts. 33322_14_Ch14_p438-465_pp2.indd 452 11/16/09 12:02:11 PM Concept Summary Symbols and Formulas. Symbols based on names have been assigned to every element. Most consist of a single capital letter followed by a lowercase letter. A few consist of a single capital letter. Compounds are represented by formulas made up of elemental symbols. The number of atoms of each element in a molecule is shown by subscripts. tabulated in the periodic table. The units used are atomic mass units, abbreviated u. Relative masses for molecules, called molecular weights, are determined by adding the atomic weights of the atoms making up the molecules. Objective 1, Exercise 2.4 Isotopes and Atomic Weights. The atomic weights measured for elements are average weights that depend on the percentages and masses of the isotopes in the naturally occurring element. If the isotope percent abundances and isotope masses are known for an element, its atomic weight can be calculated. Inside the Atom. Atoms are made up of numerous smaller particles of which the most important to chemical studies are the proton, neutron, and electron. Positively charged protons and neutral neutrons have a relative mass of 1 u each and are located in the nuclei of atoms. Negatively charged electrons with a mass of 1/1836 u are located outside the nuclei of atoms. Objective 2, Exercises 2.10 and 2.12 Isotopes. Most elements in their natural state are made up of more than one kind of atom. These different kinds of atoms of a specific element are called isotopes and differ from one another only in the number of neutrons in their nuclei. A symbol incorporating atomic number, mass number, and elemental symbol is used to represent specific isotopes. Objective 3, Exercises 2.16 and 2.22 Relative Masses of Atoms and Molecules. Relative masses Objective 4, Exercise 2.32 Objective 5, Exercise 2.38 Avogadro’s Number: The Mole. Avogadro’s number of the atoms of an element has a mass in grams equal to the atomic weight of the element. Avogadro’s number of molecules has a mass in grams equal to the molecular weight. Avogadro’s number of particles is called a mole, abbreviated mol. Objective 6, Exercises 2.44 a & b and 2.46 a & b The Mole and Chemical Formulas. The mole concept when applied to molecular formulas gives numerous relationships that yield useful factors for factor-unit calculations. Key Terms and Concepts. These are listed at the end of the chapter for easy review, with a reference to the chapter section in which they are presented. Key Equations. This feature provides a useful summary of general equations and reactions from the chapter. This feature is particularly helpful to students in the organic chemistry chapters. xx Preface