Tài liệu Foundations of College Chemistry, 13 Edition - Morris Hein, Susan Arena

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FOUNDATIONS OF COLLEGE CHEMISTRY This page intentionally left blank FOUNDATIONS OF COLLEGE CHEMISTRY Thirteenth Edition Morris Hein Mount San Antonio College Susan Arena University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign John Wiley & Sons, Inc VP & Publisher: Kaye Pace Associate Publisher: Petra Recter Acquisition Editor: Nicholas Ferrari Project Editor: Jennifer Yee Marketing Manager: Kristine Ruff Production Manager: Dorothy Sinclair Senior Production Editor: Sandra Dumas Art Director: Jeofrey Vita Designer: Amy Rosen Senior Media Editor: Thomas Kulesa Media Editor: Marc Wezdecki Senior Illustration Editor: Anna Melhorn Photo Department Manager: Hilary Newman Photo Editor: Elinor Wagner Production Management Services: Ingrao Associates This book was typeset in 10/12 Minister Light at Preparé and printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley/Jefferson City. The cover was printed by R. R. Donnelley/Jefferson City. The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield—harvesting of its timberlands. Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth. This book is printed on acid free paper. q Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. ISBN-13 978-0470-46061-0 ISBN-13 978-0470-55422-7 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For Edna Ruth Hein My wife, partner in life, and best friend for over sixty-four years, who typed the manuscript for the first edition of this textbook. Edna was sweet, devoted, and a beautiful woman both inside and outside. To know her was to love her. M. H. This page intentionally left blank ABOUT THE AUTHORS Morris Hein is professor emeritus of chemistry at Mt. San Antonio College, where he regularly taught the preparatory chemistry course and organic chemistry. He is the original author of Foundations of College Chemistry and his name has become synonymous with clarity, meticulous accuracy, and a step-by-step approach that students can follow. Over the years, more than three million students have learned chemistry using a text by Morris Hein. In addition to Foundations of College Chemistry, Twelfth Edition, he is co-author of Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry, Eighth Edition, and Introduction to Organic and Biochemistry. He is also co-author of Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, Twelfth Edition, and Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry in the Laboratory, Eighth Edition. Susan Arena earned a BS and MA in Chemistry at California State UniversityFullerton. She has taught science and mathematics at all levels, including middle school, high school, community college, and university. At the University of Illinois she developed a program for increasing the retention of minorities and women in science and engineering. This program focused on using active learning and peer teaching to encourage students to excel in the sciences. She has coordinated and led workshops and progrms for science teachers from elementary through college levels that encourage and support active learning and creative science teaching techniques. For several years she was director of an Institute for Chemical Education (ICE) field center in Southern California. Susan enjoys reading, knitting, traveling, classic cars, and gardening in her spare time when she is not playing with her grandchildren. ix This page intentionally left blank P R E FA C E This new Thirteenth Edition of Foundations of College Chemistry presents chemistry as a modern, vital subject and is designed to make introductory chemistry accessible to all beginning students. The central focus is the same as it has been from the first edition: to make chemistry interesting and understandable to students and teach them the problem-solving skills they will need. In preparing this new edition, we considered the comments and suggestions of students and instructors to design a revision that builds on the strengths of previous editions. We have especially tried to relate chemistry to the real lives of our students as we develop the principles that form the foundation for the further study of chemistry, and to provide them with problem-solving skills and practice needed in their future studies. Course Options Foundations of College Chemistry, 13th Edition, is intended for stu- dents who have never taken a chemistry course or those who have had a significant interruption in their studies but plan to continue with the general chemistry sequence. Since its inception this book has helped define the preparatory chemistry course and has since developed a much wider audience. In addition to preparatory chemistry, our text is used extensively in one-semester general purpose courses (such as those for applied health fields) and in courses for nonscience majors. Alternate Editions For the convenience of instructors and to accommodate the various lengths of academic terms, two versions of this book are available. Foundations of College Chemistry, 13th Edition, includes 20 chapters and is our main text. Foundations of College Chemistry, Alternate 13th Edition, provides a shorter, 17-chapter text in paperback with the same material, but without the nuclear, organic, and biochemistry chapters. Development of Problem-Solving Skills We all want our students to develop real skills in solving problems. We believe that a key to the success of this text is the fact that our problem-solving approach works for students. It is a step-by-step process that teaches the use of units and shows the change from one unit to the next. We have added a new section (4.5) in order to emphasize the general process needed to solve problems. We have then used this problem-solving approach in our examples throughout the text to encourage students to think their way through each problem. In this edition we continue to use examples to incorporate fundamental mathematical skills, scientific notation, and significant figures. We have added Problem-Solving Strategy boxes in the text to highlight the steps needed to solve chemistry problems. Painstaking care has been taken to show each step in the probg p Problem-Solving Strategy for Stoichiometry Problems Use a balanced equation. 1. Determine the number of moles of starting substance. Identify the starting substance from the data given in the problem statement. Convert the quantity of the starting substance to moles, if it is not already done: moles = (grams) a 1 mole b molar mass 2. Determine the mole ratio of the desired substance to the starting substance. The number of moles of each substance in the balanced equation is indicated by the coefficient in front of each substance. Use these coefficients to set up the mole ratio: g Practice 11.3 The formula for sodium oxide is Na2O. Predict the formula for (a) sodium sulfide (b) rubidium oxide Practice 11.4 The formula for barium phosphide is Ba3P2 . Predict the formula for (a) magnesium nitride (b) barium arsenide Practice Problems moles of desired substance in the equation Problem-Solving Strategy xi xii PREFACE lem-solving process and to use these steps in solving example problems. We continue to use four significant figures for atomic and molar masses for consistency and for rounding off answers appropriately. We have been meticulous in providing answers, correctly rounded, for students who have difficulty with mathematics. Fostering Student Skills Attitude plays a critical role in problem solving. We encourage students to learn that a systematic approach to solving problems is better than simple memorization. Throughout the book we emphasize the use of our approach to problem solving to encourage students to think through each problem. Once we have laid the foundations of concepts, we highlight the steps so students can locate them easily. Important rules and equations are highlighted for emphasis and ready reference. Student Practice Practice problems follow the examples in the text, with answers provided at the end of the chapter. The end of each chapter begins with a Chapter Review and Review Questions section, which help students review key terms and concepts, as well as material presented in tables and figures. This is followed by Paired Exercises, covering concepts and numerical exercises, where two similar exercises are presented side by side. The final section, Additional Exercises, includes further practice problems presented in a more random order. In our new edition we have changed a significant number of exercises per chapter, and added new “Challenge Exercises.” Answers for selected exercises appear in Appendix VI, and answers for Putting It Together review exercises appear in Appendix VII. Emphasis on Real-World Aspects We continue to emphasize the less theoretical aspects of chemistry early in the book, leaving the more abstract theory for later. This sequence seems especially appropriate in a course where students are encountering chemistry for the very first time. Atoms, molecules, and reactions are all an integral part of the chemical nature of matter. A sound understanding of these topics allows the student to develop a basic understanding of chemical properties and vocabulary. Chapters 1 through 3 present the basic mathematics and the language of chemistry, including an explanation of the metric system and significant figures. In Chapter 4 we present chemical properties—the ability of a substance to form new substances. Then, in Chapter 5, students encounter the history and language of basic atomic theory. We continue to present new material at a level appropriate for the beginning student by emphasizing nomenclature, composition of compounds, and reactions in Chapters 6 through 9 before moving into the details of modern atomic theory. Some applications of the Periodic Table are shown in early chapters and discussed in detail in Chapters 10 and 11. Students gain confidence in their own ability to identify and work with chemicals in the laboratory before tackling the molecular models of matter. As practicing chemists we have little difficulty connecting molecular models and chemical properties. Students, especially those with no prior chemistry background, may not share this ability to connect the molecular models and the macroscopic properties of matter. Those instructors who feel it is essential to teach atomic theory and bonding early in the course can cover Chapters 10 and 11 immediately following Chapter 5. New to This Edition In this Thirteenth Edition we have tried to build on the strengths of the previous editions. We have worked to update the art and add more macro to molecular figures to help students clarify concepts visually. We continually strive to keep the material at the PREFACE same level so students can easily read and use the text to learn chemistry. Some specific changes in the text are highlighted below: • Chapter 2 highlights the use of dimensional analysis through the use of Solution Maps. These maps are used throughout the text in examples when conversion of units is required. • Chapter 4 contains a new section which focuses on the process of solving problems. A new general strategy using the steps of read, plan, set-up, calculate, and check is used in examples throughout the text. • Examples have been reformatted to use the new problem solving process and to make use of Solution Maps to convert units. • Rules boxes have been added throughout the text to highlight the rules for such chemistry concepts as significant figures, and scientific notation. • Molecular art: Learning chemistry requires the ability to connect the macroscopic world of everyday life to the microscopic world of atoms and molecules. In this edition we have added molecular art to macroscopic pictures to emphasize this connection. • Chapter Reviews have been reformatted to include key terms and to review each section in a bulleted format similar to what a student might use to review the material. We have included summary art from the chapter in this section to aid visual learners. Review Questions are included in the Chapter Reviews to encourage students to restate concepts from the chapter and to apply Tables and Figures to new situations. • Design and Illustration Program: This edition has a fresh new design, enhanced by an updated art and photo program. New photos appear throughout. • Problem Solving: Because the development of problem-solving skills is essential to learning chemistry, in this new design the sections on problem solving are highlighted throughout for easy student reference. • Math Skills Learning Aids: A Review of Mathematics is provided as Appendix I for students who need assistance. • Chemistry in Action sections, a number are new to this edition, show the impact of chemistry in a variety of practical applications. These essays cover a range of relevant topics and introduce experimental information on new chemical discoveries and applications. • Important statements, equations, and laws are highlighted for emphasis. A Glossary is provided to help students review key terms, with section numbers given for each term to guide the student to the contextual definition. The margins of the glossary pages are color tinted to provide ready access. Glossary terms are also printed in bold type in the text. • End of chapter exercises, provide practice and review of the chapter material. Paired exercises present two parallel exercises, side by side, so the student can solve one problem, check the answer in Appendix VI, and use the same problem-solving skills with the second exercise. Additional exercises are provided at the end of most chapters, arranged in random order, to encourage students to review the chapter material. Answers to selected exercises are given in Appendix VI. • Putting It Together review sections appear after every 2 to 4 chapters and include additional conceptually oriented exercises for effective self-review. These review sections are printed on colored pages for easy reference and provide students with a helpful summary of the preceding material. Answers to Putting It Together review sections are given in Appendix VII. • Directions on using a calculator to solve problems are given in Appendix II, Using a Scientific Calculator. • Units of measurement are shown in table format in Appendix IV and in the endpapers. xiii xiv PREFACE Learning Aids To help the beginning student gain the confidence necessary to master technical material, we have refined and enhanced a series of learning aids: • Important terms are set off in bold type where they are defined, and are printed in black in the margin. Most glossary terms are also defined in the glossary. • Worked examples show students the how of problem solving using Problem-Solving Strategies and Solution Maps before they are asked to tackle problems on their own. • Practice problems permit immediate reinforcement of a skill shown in the example problems. Answers are provided at the end of the chapter to encourage students to check their problem solving immediately. • Marginal notations help students understand basic concepts and problem-solving techniques. These are printed in green ink to clearly distinguish them from text and vocabulary terms. Learning Aids: Math Skills For students who may need help with the mathematical aspects of chemistry, the following learning aids are available: • A Review of Mathematics, covering the basic functions, is provided in Appendix I. • Math Survival Guide: Tips and Tricks for Science Students, 2nd Edition, by Jeffrey R. Appling and Jean C. Richardson, a brief paperback summary of basic skills that can be packaged with the text, provides an excellent resource for students who need help with the mathematical aspects of chemistry. Supplements Package and Companion Web Site For the Student Study Guide by Rachael Henriques Porter is a self-study guide for students. For each chapter, the Study Guide includes a self-evaluation section with student exercises, a summary of chapter concepts, one or more “challenge problems,” and answers and solutions to all Study Guide exercises. Solutions Manual by Morris Hein, Susan Arena, and Kathy Mitchell includes answers and solutions to all end-of-chapter questions and exercises. Math Survival Guide: Tips and Tricks for Science Students, 2nd Edition, a paperback summary of basic skills with practice exercises in every chapter. Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, 13th Edition, by Morris Hein, Judith N. Peisen and Robert L. Miner includes 28 experiments for a laboratory program that may accompany the lecture course. Featuring updated information on waste disposal and emphasizing safe laboratory procedures, the lab manual also includes study aids and exercises. For the Instructor Test Bank, by Anthony Stellato. Includes chapter tests with additional test questions, and answers to all test questions. Computerized Test Bank. The test bank contains true-false, multiple-choice, and open-ended questions, and is available in two formats. WileyPLUS is an online teaching and learning environment that integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources to fit every learning style. It contains a variety of rich repositories of assessment, much of which are algorithmic. The diverse problem types are designed to enable and support problem-solving skills development and conceptual understanding. WileyPLUS offers three unique repositories of questions which provide breadth, depth and flexibility in instructional and assessment content. • End of chapter questions are available, featuring immediate answer feedback. A subset of these end of chapter questions are linked to Guided Online Tutorials which are stepped out problem-solving tutorials that walk the student through the PREFACE problem, offering individualized feedback at each step. The testbank is also offered as assignable questions for homework. In addition to the test bank and end of chapter questions, WileyPLUS offers an assignment type called CATALYST, which are prebuilt concept mastery assignments, organized by topic and concept, allowing for iterative drill and skill practice. For more information on CATALYST, visit: www.wiley.com/college/catalyst. For Students WileyPLUS addresses different learning styles, different levels of proficiency, and different levels of preparation—each of your students is unique. WileyPLUS empowers them to take advantage of their individual strengths: • Students receive timely access to resources that address their demonstrated needs, and get immediate feedback and remediation when needed. • Integrated, multimedia resources—including audio and visual exhibits, demonstration problems, and much more—provide multiple study-paths to fit each student’s learning preferences and encourage more active learning. • WileyPLUS includes many opportunities for self-assessment linked to the relevant portions of the text. Students can take control of their own learning and practice until they master the material. For Instructors WileyPLUS empowers you with the tools and resources you need to make your teaching even more effective: • You can customize your classroom presentation with a wealth of resources and functionality from PowerPoint slides to a database of rich visuals. You can even add your own materials to your WileyPLUS course. • With WileyPLUS you can identify those students who are falling behind and intervene accordingly, without having to wait for them to come to office hours. • WileyPLUS simplifies and automates such tasks as student performance assessment, marking assignments, scoring student work, keeping grades, and more. WileyPLUS can be used in conjunction with your textbook or it can replace the printed text altogether, as a complete eBook comes standard. For the Laboratory Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, 13th Edition, by Morris Hein, Judith Peisen, and Robert Miner, has been completely updated and revised to reflect the most current terminology and environmental standards. Instructors can customize their own lab manual to meet the distinct needs of their laboratory by selecting from any of the 28 experiments, adding their own experiments or exercises. Instructor’s Manual for Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, 13th Edition, includes valuable and important information on the management of the lab, evaluation of experiments, notes for individual experiments, a list of reagents needed, and answer keys to each experiment’s report form and to all exercises. Instructor’s Companion Web Site Instructors have access to all: • Digital Image Library: images from the text are available online in JPEG format. Instructors may use these to customize their presentations and to provide additional visual support for quizzes and exams. • Test Bank: contains true-false, multiple-choice, and free-response questions. • Power Point Lecture Slides: created by Eugene Passer, these slides contain lecture outlines and key topics from each chapter of the text, along with supporting artwork and figures from the text. xv xvi PREFACE Acknowledgments Books are the result of a collaborative effort of many talented and dedicated people. We are grateful for the many helpful comments from colleagues and students who, over the years, have made this book possible. We hope they will continue to share their ideas for change with us, either directly or through our publisher. We are especially thankful for the support, friendship, and constant encouragement of our spouses, Edna and Steve, who have endured many lost weekends and been patient and understanding through the long hours of this process. Their optimism and good humor have given us a sense of balance and emotional stability. Our sincere appreciation goes to the following reviewers who were kind enough to read and give their professional comments. For the 13th Edition: Madeline Adamczeski San Jose City College Edward L. Barnes, Jr. Fayetteville Technical Community College Sean Birke Jefferson College Jing-Yi Chin Suffolk Community College Joe David Escobar Jr., Oxnard College Theodore E. Fickel Los Angeles Valley College Melodie Graber Oakton Community College Dawn Richardson Collin College Lydia Martinez Rivera The University of Texas-San Antonio Karen Sanchez Florida Community College-Jacksonville Ali O. Sezer California University of Pennsylvania David B. Shaw Madison Area Technical College Joy Walker Truman College Morris Hein and Susan Arena BRIEF CONTENTS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 An Introduction to Chemistry 1 14 Solutions 316 Standards for Measurement 13 15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 351 Elements and Compounds 43 381 61 16 Chemical Equilibrium Properties of Matter 17 Oxidation–Reduction 411 18 Nuclear Chemistry 441 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 466 Introduction to Biochemistry 508 Appendixes A-1 Glossary G-1 Early Atomic Theory and Structure Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 81 98 19 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 121 Chemical Equations 143 Calculations from Chemical Equations 168 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 20 194 Photo Credits Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 213 12 The Gaseous State of Matter 251 13 Properties of Liquids 290 Index PC-1 I-1 xvii This page intentionally left blank LAST NUMBER 1 SUBHEAD xix CONTENTS 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 An Introduction to Chemistry 1 Why Study Chemistry? The Nature of Chemistry Thinking Like a Chemist A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 2 2 2 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Molecular Gastronomy 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 The Scientific Method The Particulate Nature of Matter Physical States of Matter Classifying Matter Review Review Questions Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 3 4 5 6 8 10 11 12 13 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Scientific Notation Measurement and Uncertainty Significant Figures Significant Figures in Calculations The Metric System Dimensional Analysis 14 15 17 18 21 23 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Keeping Track of Units Measuring Mass and Volume CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Setting Standards Measurement of Temperature CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Taking the Temperature of Old Faithful 2.9 43 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Elements Distribution of Elements Names of the Elements Symbols of the Elements Introduction to the Periodic Table 44 44 46 46 48 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Elements on UTube? 3.6 3.7 Elements in Their Natural States Elements That Exist as Diatomic Molecules CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Using Oxygen to Revive Damaged Art 3.8 3.9 Compounds Chemical Formulas CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Cars: Is Hydrogen the Answer? Standards for Measurement 2.8 Elements and Compounds 4 2 2.7 3 Density Review Review Questions Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Challenge Exercises Answers to Practice Exercises 33 34 37 39 39 42 50 51 52 53 54 56 58 4 Properties of Matter 61 4.1 Properties of Substances 62 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Making Money 27 31 50 Review Review Questions Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Challenge Exercises Answers to Practice Exercises 27 29 48 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Physical Changes Chemical Changes Conservation of Mass Learning to Solve Problems Energy Heat: Quantitative Measurement CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Popping Popcorn 4.8 4.9 4.10 Energy in Chemical Changes Conservation of Energy Energy in the Real World Review Review Questions 58 60 63 64 64 66 67 67 68 70 71 71 72 73 74 xix