Tài liệu Luận văn giáo dục sư phạm a study on common grammatical errors in speaking skill of 11th grade students at a high school in vietnam

Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc1 of 63. HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY 2 FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE NGUYEN MINH PHUONG A STUDY ON COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS IN SPEAKING SKILL OF 11th GRADE STUDENTS AT A HIGH SCHOOL IN VIETNAM (NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ LỖI NGỮ PHÁP PHỔ BIẾN TRONG KĨ NĂNG NÓI CỦA HỌC SINH KHỐI 11 TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG CẤP 3, VIỆT NAM) (Graduation paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in English) Major: English Language Teaching Method Hanoi, 2019 Footer Page 1 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc2 of 63. HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY 2 FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES NGUYEN MINH PHUONG A STUDY ON COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS IN SPEAKING SKILL OF 11th GRADE STUDENTS AT A HIGH SCHOOL IN VIETNAM (NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ LỖI NGỮ PHÁP PHỔ BIẾN TRONG KĨ NĂNG NÓI CỦA HỌC SINH KHỐI 11 TẠI MỘT TRƯỜNG CẤP 3, VIỆT NAM) Major: English Language Teaching Method SUPERVISOR: TRẦN THỊ MINH PHƯƠNG, MA. Hanoi, 2019 Footer Page 2 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc3 of 63. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my many thanks to people who have supported me to complete the research. To my supervisor Tran Thi Minh Phuong, who directly instructed, encouraged and gave me many valuable ideas. I am extremely grateful for her extensive knowledge as well as her enthusiasm, which are of almost significant to the achievement of my research. I would like to convey my thanks to all English teachers of Yen Khanh A High school who have assisted me with lots of useful suggestions and provided with rich and detail data for the study. Also, I wish to express my gratitude to all students from 3 classes: 11D, 11E, 11G at Yen Khanh A High school for their participation, enthusiasm, cooperation during the time I surveyed. I owe a special note of gratitude to English teachers of Ha Noi pedagogical University II, who have enthusiastically taught and conveyed their experiences during the time I started to carry the research. Finally, I would like to thank to my family, friends and relatives, who have always paid attention, encouraged me and supported me throughout the process of studying, conducting and completing the topic. i Footer Page 3 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc4 of 63. ABSTRACT This paper studied on common grammatical errors in speaking skill of 11th grade students at Yen Khanh A High school. In the research, the author combined the use of quantitative and qualitative methods to achieve the desired results. The participants of the study is a hundred and twenty students of the 11th grade and ten English teachers at Yen Khanh A High school. Research results illustrates that most of the 11th grade students in Yen Khanh A High school suffer from errors related verb form, prepositions, articles, subject-verb agreement as well. Besides, from teacher's point of view at Yen Khanh A High school, the main cause of these errors is the direct impact on students 'psychology; the students' grammatical knowledge is not really deep; the influence of Vietnamese grammar while speaking. Specially, they strongly emphasize on performance pressure factor, which is the most common ones. In order to minimize these errors, teachers should apply suitable and flexible techniques and create opportunities for students to talk as much as possible. Meanwhile, students should communicate regularly with teachers and friends, as well as having suitable methods for self-study. Key words: grammatical errors, speaking skill, 11th grade, Yen Khanh A High School. ii Footer Page 4 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc5 of 63. STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP Title: A study on grammatical errors in speaking skill of the11th grade students at a high school in Vietnam. I certify that no part of this research has been copied or reproduced by me from any other person‘s work without the proper acknowledgement. And the results are my own research, all data are collected from the process of survey and data processing, absolutely no data duplication or fabrication. Date submitted: Student Supervisor iii Footer Page 5 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc6 of 63. LIST OF TABLES Table1: Common prepositions according to Langen ....................................................16 Table 2: Tenses and Structures of tenses according to Quirk(2010) ...........................22 Table 3: Compare the present perfect tense and the simple past tense ........................24 Table 4: Types of tenses ....................................................................................................25 Table 5: Frequency of errors based on linguistic description ......................................34 Table 6: Level of student’ errors based on teacher’s views...........................................41 iv Footer Page 6 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc7 of 63. LIST OF FIGURES Figure1: The role of speaking skill..................................................................................37 Figure 2: Students‘ interest in English grammar ..........................................................38 Figure 3: The role of grammar in speaking skill ...........................................................39 Figure 4: Causes of errors ................................................................................................42 v Footer Page 7 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc8 of 63. TABLE CONTENT PART A: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 I.Rationale of the study .............................................................................................................. 1 II.The significance of the study ........................................................................................ 4 III.Aims of the study ................................................................................................................... 4 IV.Research question .................................................................................................................. 4 V.Scope of the study .................................................................................................................... 4 VI.Method of study ..................................................................................................................... 5 `VII.Main contents....................................................................................................................... 5 PART B: DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 6 1.Literature review in brief…………………………………………………………………..6 2.Theories of Speaking ............................................................................................................... 7 2.1.Definition of speaking .......................................................................................................... 7 3.Theories of Grammar ............................................................................................................. 9 3.1.Definition of grammar ......................................................................................................... 9 3.2.Roles of grammar in speaking .......................................................................................... 9 4.Theories of Error .................................................................................................................... 10 4.1.Definitions of Error ............................................................................................................ 10 4.2.Types of error……………………………………………………………………………...11 5.Theories of Error analysis ................................................................................................... 13 5.1.Definition of Error analysis ............................................................................................ 13 5.2.Significance of error analysis .......................................................................................... 14 6.Theories of Grammatical error.......................................................................................... 14 6.1.Definition of Grammatical error ................................................................................... 14 6.2.Grammatical errors classification ................................................................................. 15 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 29 2.Participants .............................................................................................................................. 29 3.1.Observation ........................................................................................................................... 30 vi Footer Page 8 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc9 of 63. 3.1.1.Reasons for using observation ..................................................................................... 30 3.1.2.Description of class observation .................................................................................. 30 3.2.Survey questionnaires ........................................................................................................ 30 3.2.1.Reasons for using Questionnaire ................................................................................ 30 3.2.2.Description of questionnaire ........................................................................................ 31 3.3.Recording............................................................................................................................... 31 3.3.1. Reasons for recording ................................................................................................... 31 3.3.2. Description of recording ............................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................. 33 1.Findings and discussion ........................................................................................................ 33 1.1. Data analysis of observation and recording .............................................................. 33 1.2 Data analysis of the survey questionnaire ................................................................... 36 2. Suggested solution ................................................................................................................. 44 2.1. Suggested solutions ........................................................................................................... 44 PART III.CONCUSION ......................................................................................................... 47 1.Summary of the study ........................................................................................................... 47 2.Limitations of the study ........................................................................................................ 48 3.Suggestions for further studies ........................................................................................... 48 4.Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 49 REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................. 51 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 54 vii Footer Page 9 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc10 of 63. PART A: INTRODUCTION I.Rationale of the study As we all know, language plays a very important role in human life, which is the characteristic of human. In daily life, we use language to communicate, also to exchange cultural, economic, political expansion and cooperation in many other aspects of life. For international communication, English is used as a bridge between different nations, which is spoken by most countries in the world, including Viet Nam. Therefore, we can not deny the importance of this international language in today's society. In fact, enhancing learner‘s communicative capability is one of the main goal of teaching and learning foreign language. However, to master a new language is not simple, it requires us to learn all four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. In those skills, speaking requires learners to practice regularly and have their own strategies. Besides, a good speaker needs to have good interaction with listeners, fluency and speed of utterance. Most students find it difficult to speak English at first. Speaking, however, in view of Competence Based Curriculum speaking is one of the four fundamental abilities that the students should gain well. It has an essential job in communication. Speaking can discover in spoken cycle particularly in Joint Construction of Text arrange (Departmen Pendidikan Nasional, 2004). In other word, speaking is considered as the most important skill for the purpose of communication and one of the key helping learners easily conquer this interesting language. Like writing skill, speaking is production skill. If when writing, learners have time to think, also correct grammatical structures, then spoken English is uniquely spontaneous, unplanned and produced in real time with no opportunity for editing (Cullen and Kuo 2007), Obviously, when speaking English, learners do not have time to think, but must deal quickly with their instincts. According to Azar (2007), Grammar can ―help students discover the nature of language, i.e., that language consists of predictable patterns that make what we say, read, hear, and write intelligible‖ . It means that without grammar, people would have only individual words or sounds, pictures, and body language to communicate 1 Footer Page 10 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc11 of 63. meaning. Brumfit (1984) as well refers to the accuracy of the language content: grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Also, in any language, grammar makes significant contribution to speaking skill. This implies linguistic use this rules can offer assistance learners think logically, clearly and accuracy when speaking. The fact that each person has a different perspective on teaching and learning grammar. For those who are just beginning to learn English or have a short-term goal in this subject, grammar may not be important. Sellers or drivers still could speak English simply for sales. They only need to grasp basic vocabulary related to the item and the price is enough for customers to listen and understand without much grammar. However, when passing the first stage of learning English, people focused more on accuracy. It is clear that when evaluating someone's speaking ability, we cannot ignore grammar factor. According to Mr Nguyen Xuan Quang (the co-founder and trainer of English pronunciation at Moon ESL) it is extremely difficult to assess students through their pronunciation. If focusing on pronunciation only instead of grammar will put great challenges for the whole system: how to evaluate? In addition, using the right grammar when speaking also shows respect of speakers to the listeners. Obviously, when you are good at grammar, you will hear and understand others more easily. Without grammar, you will not be able to understand or misunderstand the meaning of the speaker. Compare the two following sentences: - I am in love with Tien Dung. - I was in love with Tien Dung. The difference is unremarkable (am - was), but the relationship between the speaker and "Tien Dung" is very different in two cases. Or another example, the listener may misunderstand the meaning of the speaker - Can you take me a pen on my bag ? -OK….I can’t see it. On where? -On my bag, oh I’m sorry in my bag. As you can see in the above case, the speaker asks to mistake the position of the pen due to misusing preposition on and in, so the listener misunderstand his meaning and can not find the pen at first. 2 Footer Page 11 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc12 of 63. In the past, when Vietnam had not yet renovated its teaching program, teachers mainly used traditional methods: reading and translating. When teaching English, most schools focus strongly on the grammar on the written but lack emphasis on speech. What‘s more, teachers almost control students during class time. In this situation, Viet Nam‘s education sector today has been renewed, focusing on developing all four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Nevertheless, one of the biggest barrier facing Vietnamese students is the lack of experience. Particularly, most of time students are taught hundreds of grammar rules but it‘s almost impossible for them to apply these grammar rules accurately and effectively to speaking skill. Besides, the time spent on practice speaking is too little for students. Especially, a notable situation is that students learn just for points, the form of examinations or tests based on reading and writing skill only. Therefore, students do not seem to focus on speaking skill much, which leads to deviations in learning English: understand but not applicable. Dr. Nguyen Thi Hao (Deputy Head of Education Management Department, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, HCM) supposed that many students until the 12th grade, when meeting tourists, cannot guide them by using simple directions structures. Regardless of the changes which should be made in concentrates on grammatical errors in spoken language, such research would fill an instructive need by indicating what students have realized and what they have not yet achieved in speaking English. Such study also would contribute to writing on linguistic properties of spoken language for materials improvement. Hence, with a reason above, there arises a need of a research on ―A study on grammatical errors in speaking skill of the11th grade students at a high school in Vietnam” II. The significance of the study Making mistakes in speaking is unavoidable, and it is also as one of the underresearched issues in speaking skill for students in Vietnam. Hopefully, this research will be helpful for students, teachers and as well as researchers in the related fields: 3 Footer Page 12 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc13 of 63. Firstly, for students, this study can help them recognize some common types of grammatical errors in speaking and employ effective learning methods in studying English speaking skill. Moreover, it will be very useful for teachers in teaching speaking skill since they can understand the common mistakes of students. Last but not least, this paper may be laid foundation for researchers to find out more about their related areas. III.Aims of the study The minor purpose of the study focuses on investigating some common grammatical errors in speaking skill by students of grade 11 at Yen Khanh A High School. Also, the reasons that students often make grammatical errors when speaking and then suggest some solutions for teachers could find out the common mistakes students make. IV. Research question As the aims mentioned above, the researcher contains the research question as follows: 1. What are the common grammatical errors committed by 11th grade students at Yen Khanh A school? V. Scope of the study Grammar is considered as important and difficult aspect in speaking. However, because of the limited time and the restricted experience, I just concentrate on analyzing a number of common students‘ grammatical mistakes in speaking skill. Hopefully, this graduation paper is able to provide teachers good and useful information about students‘ common mistakes when they speak, so teachers can make relevant change and adaptation to tackle this problem. Furthermore, this study discovers the attitude of students towards speaking English, especially is grammar in speaking skill. VI.Method of study One hundred and twenty students of grade 11 at Yen Khanh A high school were chosen as subjects of the study. They were both male and female between 17 and 18 4 Footer Page 13 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc14 of 63. years. All of them have been learning English as a compulsory subject at school for at least six years. In this thesis proposal, there were three tools used as effective ways to evaluate the results of the thesis: observation, questionnaire and recording. Observation and recording were proceeded in the first five weeks with a view to taking note speeches of students. I observed the whole class and recorded 5 to 6 students ‗speeches each time. The questionnaires were used in the final week by Yen Khanh A‘s students and the assistance of some English teachers at Yen Khanh A High School to investigate the real situation of speaking proficiency of 11th grade students at Yen Khanh A High School. VII.Main contents Part A, Introduction, offers an overview of Rationale, Aims of the study, Research questions, Scope of the study, Methods of the study and Significance of the study. Part B, Development, gives information on Literature Review, Methodology, Finding and Discussion, Implications of the study. Chapter I, Literature review, presents language acquisition, theoretical frameworks of language learning factors and research framework. Chapter II, Methodology, describes in detail the Participants, Research instruments employed and Procedure of data collection analysis. Chapter III, Findings and discussion, analyzes gathered data and presents the discussion of research findings. And then give suggested solution for teachers. Part C, Conclusion, summary of the study, limitations and suggestion for further study. 5 Footer Page 14 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc15 of 63. PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.LITERATURE IN BRIEF Studying on grammatical errors when speaking is always a topic that attracted many previous researchers, including Clark and Clark (1977), Ellis (1997), Burt and Krashen (1982) and so on. They all have different ways of analyzing and classifying errors. In general, they stated that speech error and error analysis are closely related. In August 2016, Safrida, Usman Kasim conducted a research on "Grammatical Errors: An Analysis in Speaking Produced by EFL Undergraduate" taken on the third semester students of Syiah Kuala University on their speaking in Indonesia. The researcher gave a speaking test to the eight of the third semester English Education students of Syiah Kuala University. He used convenience sampling technique to limit the subject chosen. The writer asked students to talk about their most memorable experience within 5 to 8 minutes. Next he recorded the students' speeches. He also asked extensive questions related to the recording topics to gather more data. Then, the data, which had been recorded were transcribed and analyzed in several steps. The findings showed that the most dominant errors that students produced were in omission. In this research, the students mostly neglected the past forms of both regular and irregular verbs. On the other hand, the smallest occurrences of errors were in misordering. Besides, Merlyn Simbolon studied ―An Analysis of Grammatical Errors on Speaking Activities” (September 2015) .The number of the research subject was 30 students of the second year students of English Education Department, Palangka Raya University. Qualitative research is the method used in this study. The errors were indentified and classified according to Linguistic Category Taxonomy and Richard‘s classification. The result indicated that the errors made by students were in 6 aspects; errors in production of verb groups, errors in the distribution of verb groups, errors in the use of article, errors in the use of preposition, errors in the use of questions and miscellaneous errors. 6 Footer Page 15 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc16 of 63. Furthermore, Hervina also analyzed grammatical errors when speaking with title "Grammatical error in speaking made by the third year English Department students at STKIP Abdi Pendidikan Payakumbuh "performed on 3rd year students of STKIP Abdi Pendidikan Payakumbuh, published in 2014. The researcher used the qualitative method, including: observation, interview and documentation. The writer used 3 activities on data analysis: data reduction, data display, drawing/verification. The results illustrated that most students could not master the use of verb groups. They also confused in making the agreement between subject and verb. In addition, prepositions were one of the obstacles for students when speaking English. In brief, each of type of error has source of error. Depending on different contexts as well as different conditions, learners may make different grammatical errors. Thus, it is essential to have a study on common grammatical errors in speaking English of students at Yen Khanh A High School. 2.Theories of Speaking 2.1.Definition of speaking Oxford dictionaries defied speaking is the action of conveying information or expressing one's feelings in speech or the activity of delivering speeches. According to Burns & Joyce, 1997, speaking is stated as an intelligent procedure of developing implying that includes delivering, getting and handling information. Its form and meaning is based on different factors in different contexts such as participants, including speakers and listeners, physical environment and goals for speaking. As Hybel (2001) declared that speaking is any procedure in which individuals share information, thoughts, and feeling, it includes all of non-verbal communication and style whatever adds significance to a message. Specially, speaking is to express our thought to others in oral communication, additionally a handle in which a speaker passes on data or messages to listeners. Furthermore, it is generally believed that speaking skill is one of the important skills that must be mastered by a language learner (according to Goh & Burn, 2012). Indeed, to become a good language learner, we cannot ignore speaking skill because it is the 7 Footer Page 16 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc17 of 63. main part of communication, which can affect others‘life. Also, Thornbury (2005) stated that speaking is a speech production that becomes a part of our daily activities. He said that many people produce many words every day in order to express their idea and feeling. Obviously, speaking is an essential part of human life, it appears in all our activities. When we want to ask a question, or express our opinions, we all have to speak. The spoken language also has its own rules or structures, which are different from the written language. (Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995; Cohen, 1996). For example we can freely use slangs or idioms during speaking or communicating without boring, but in writing, we are not encouraged to use them regularly, even restrictively. Also, while we use mostly active sentences in speaking to ensure nature: Most people love Quang Hai, we use passive sentences more often in writing: Quang Hai is loved by most people As Tarigan (1990) speaking is a language ability that is created in child life, which is delivered by listening skill, and at that period speaking skill is found out. He also highlighted that in communication, speaking is also a way to strongly reflect our lives. Wilson (1983) defines speaking as the relationship between speaker and listener in communication. The principle target of speaking is for communication. So as to express adequately, the speaker should know precisely what he/she needs to speak or to communicate, he/she must probably assess the impacts of his/her communication to his/her listener, he/she needs to see any rule that based his speaking either in general or in individual. To sum up, speaking is the production skill where we use words to produce meaningful messages to convey thoughts and feelings to the participants of the conversation. 8 Footer Page 17 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc18 of 63. 3.Theories of Grammar 3.1.Definition of grammar Grammar is the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also phonology and semantics. (www.oxforddictionaries.com) Grammar is the system of a language. Sometimes it is described as the "rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules. Different experts define the term grammar differently and there is no fixed definition of grammar. Harmer (2004) defined grammar as the description of the ways in which words can change their forms and can be combined into sentence in that language. As him stated in communication, it was rules or regulations when building a language and using that language. Besides, Ur mentioned grammar as the manner in which language controls and consolidate words or bits of words so as to frame longer units of implications. Grammar is the foundation of our own ability. The more we grasp how it works, the more progress we have and the mastery of that language. It can help encourage exactness, distinguish equivocalness, and endeavor the lavishness of articulation accessible in English. What's more, it can support everybody, instructors of English, yet educators of anything, for all instructing is eventually a matter of getting to grasps with significance (David Crystal, ―In World and Deed‖, TES Teacher, April 30, 2004). 3.2.Roles of grammar in speaking Grammar plays a very important and diverse role, especially in everyday communication. The role of grammar can take many dimensions and varies according to the situation and context in which it is used (according to Zakaria Dalil, June 2013) .One of the upper most traits of grammar is that it enables learners to make correct sentences, be they spoken or written. 9 Footer Page 18 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc19 of 63. ―We know that the strength of a tree lies in its roots. Similarly the strength of any spoken language lies in its grammar.‖ (Blog, how to improve spoken English) . It means grammar is the foundation when learning a foreign language. Also, Marcel (1853) focused the significant role of grammar on his book that grammar forms for us the habit of correctness of language, while helping us to think more logically, more orderly and more clearly. Moreover, a proper use of grammar is a sign of respect, both for speakers and listeners (Clack, 2010). It means that ―A person with a poor grammar skill can form negative impression on the first time meeting and this may last for a long time‖ ( https://www.ukessays.com/essays) Besides, it helps learners to discover the true nature of language, other skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing thus also become easier to understand. Without grammar, we will only have words, images, sounds and individual body expressions to convey information. Grammar is the weaving that creates the fabric (Betty Azar, 2007). Additionally, Swan (1998) held believe that knowing how to build and use certain structures makes communication possible. Without the connection between these structures, even simple sentences become very confusing. In fact that, correctly understanding English structures, we can communicate much more fluently. He also asserted that in some social contexts, the wrongness of the speaker's use of grammar can lose the integration and arousing prejudice, a poor speaker may be considered disrespectful or uneducated. 4.Theories of Error 4.1.Definitions of Error According to collins dictionary An error is something you have done which is considered to be incorrect or wrong, or which should not have been done. Different researchers defined different views. J. Richard et al (2002) described the error may be the wrong way to use a word, speech act or a grammatical structure in such a way it seems imperfect and significant of an incomplete learning. 10 Footer Page 19 of 63. Tài liu lun vn s phm , giáo dc20 of 63. Meanwhile, Norrish (1983, p.7) considered errors occur according to a system, learners may not understand or understand but apply wrongly when practicing. This is really problematic because if it is not edited from the beginning, it can become a habit and very difficult to overcome later. As James (1998) considered an error as grammatical correctness and acceptance. He judges errors according to ignorance, it is the research on linguistic ignorance, surveys about those mistakes and how people face such ignorance. He stated that the ignorance of learners of the target language can be shown following as four categories: grammaticality, acceptability, correctness and strangeness and infelicity. Hendrickson (1987) cited that errors are ‗signal‘ that indicate an actual learning process taking place and that the learner has not yet mastered or shown a wellstructured competence in the target language. In other word, the error is a signal that the learning process of the learner is having problems, which may be due to the lack of professionalism or the ability of the learner to target the language. It is declared by Brown (2007, p.258) that error as noticeable derivation from the grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner and reveals a portion of learners‘ competence in the target language. Errors are factors to reflect learners' qualifications and attitudes towards the purpose of language learning. Moreover, Ellis (1997, p.17) revealed errors reflect holes in a students' information; they happen on the grounds that the student does not realize what is correct. The fact is that learners make mistakes but they are not aware, this is because the learner's knowledge is not deep enough to realize and correct for themselves. 4.2.Types of error There are several ways to classify errors, and researchers categorize them in different ways. On the point of Richards (1974) classified errors into two categories according to their causes, which are as follows: Interlingual errors-these errors occur due to mother tongue .And intralingual and developmental errors-this kind errors are caused 11 Footer Page 20 of 63.