Tài liệu Povl brondsted, rogier p l nijssen advances in wind turbine blade design and materials

Advances in wind turbine blade design and materials © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Related titles: Electrical drives for direct drive renewable energy systems (ISBN 978-1-84569-783-9) Wind energy systems: Optimising design and construction for safe and reliable operation (ISBN 978-1-84569-580-4) Stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems: Technology, energy storage and applications (ISBN 978-1-84569-527-9) Fatigue Life Prediction of Composites and Composite Structures (ISBN 978-1-84569-525-5) Failure Analysis and Fractography of Polymer Composites (ISBN 978-1-84569-217-9) Details of these books and a complete list of titles from Woodhead Publishing can be obtained by: • visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com • contacting Customer Services (e-mail: [email protected]; fax: +44 (0) 1223 832819; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 499140 ext. 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ UK) • in North America, contacting our US office (e-mail: usmarketing@ woodheadpublishing.com; tel.: (215) 928 9112; address: Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102–3406, USA) If you would like e-versions of our content, please visit our online platform: www. woodheadpublishingonline.com. 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Typeset by Newgen Knowledge Works Pvt Ltd, India Printed by Lightning Source © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contents Contributor contact details Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Introduction Part I Wind turbine blade design: challenges and developments xi xiv xix 1 1 Introduction to wind turbine blade design F. Mølholt Jensen, Bladena, Denmark and K. Branner, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 3 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction Design principles and failure mechanisms Challenges and future trends References 3 6 18 25 2 Loads on wind turbine blades H. Söker, Deutsches Windenergie-Institut GmbH, Germany 29 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Introduction Types of load Generation of loads Fatigue and extreme loads Design verification testing Challenges and future trends Sources of further information and advice References 29 30 35 46 50 54 57 57 v © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 vi Contents 3 Aerodynamic design of wind turbine rotors C. Bak, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 59 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 Introduction The blade element momentum (BEM) method Important parameters in aerodynamic rotor design Particular design parameters An example of the rotor design process Future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgements References Appendix: Nomenclature 59 63 72 78 86 102 103 104 104 107 4 Aerodynamic characteristics of wind turbine blade airfoils W. A. Timmer, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands and C. Bak, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 109 Introduction Computational methods Desired characteristics The effect of leading edge contamination (roughness) and Reynolds number Airfoil testing Airfoil characteristics at high angles of attack Correction for centrifugal and Coriolis forces Establishing data for blade design Future trends References Appendix: Nomenclature 109 110 116 5 Aeroelastic design of wind turbine blades J. G. Holierhoek, Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, The Netherlands 150 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Introduction Wind turbine blade aeroelasticity Blade design Complete turbine design Challenges and future trends Sources of further information and advice References 150 155 162 167 170 171 171 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 120 124 128 133 140 145 146 149 Contents Part II Fatigue behaviour of composite wind turbine blades 6 Fatigue as a design driver for composite wind turbine blades R. P. L. Nijssen, Knowledge Centre Wind turbine Materials and Constructions, The Netherlands and P. Brøndsted, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Introduction Materials in blades Blade structure and components Fundamentals of wind turbine blade fatigue Research into wind turbine blade fatigue and its modelling Future trends Conclusion Sources of further information and advice References 7 Effects of resin and reinforcement variations on fatigue resistance of wind turbine blades J. F. Mandell, D. D. Samborsky and D. A. Miller, Montana State University, USA 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 8 8.1 8.2 Introduction Effects of loading conditions for glass and carbon laminates Tensile fatigue trends with laminate construction and fiber content for glass fiber laminates Effects of resin and fabric structure on tensile fatigue resistance Delamination and material transitions Comparison of fatigue trends for blade materials Conclusion Future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgments References Fatigue life prediction of wind turbine blade composite materials A. P. Vassilopoulos, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland Introduction Macroscopic failure theories © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 vii 173 175 175 176 177 183 191 201 206 206 207 210 210 211 217 226 236 243 246 247 248 248 249 251 251 255 viii Contents 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 Strength and stiffness degradation fatigue theories Fracture mechanics fatigue theories Case study: Phenomenological fatigue life prediction Future trends References 9 Micromechanical modelling of wind turbine blade materials L. Mishnaevsky Jr., Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 Introduction Analytical models of the mechanical behaviour, strength and damage of fibre-reinforced composites: an overview Unit cell modelling of fibre-reinforced composites Three-dimensional modelling of composite degradation under tensile loading Carbon fibre-reinforced composites: statistical and compressive loading effects Hierarchical composites with nanoengineered matrix Conclusions and future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgements References 268 273 284 289 291 298 298 300 304 306 311 316 317 319 320 320 10 Probabilistic design of wind turbine blades D. J. Lekou, Centre for Renewable Energy Sources and Saving (CRES), Greece 325 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Introduction Structural analysis models Failure definition Random variables Probabilistic methods and models Application examples and discussion of techniques Challenges and future trends Sources of further information and advice References 325 329 333 338 342 348 351 353 354 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contents Part III Advances in wind turbine blade materials, development and testing 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Biobased composites: materials, properties and potential applications as wind turbine blade materials B. Madsen, P. Brøndsted and T. Løgstrup Andersen, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark Introduction Biobased fibres and matrix materials Biobased composites Case study: Comparison between cellulose and glass fibre composites Special considerations in the development and application of biobased composites Sources of further information and advice References Surface protection and coatings for wind turbine rotor blades B. Kjærside Storm, Aalborg University, Denmark Introduction Fundamentals of surface protection for wind turbine blades Protection from blade icing, lightning and air traffic Performance testing of protection layers: an introduction Accelerated testing of the surface coatings of wind turbine blades in practice Conclusions, challenges and future trends References Design, manufacture and testing of small wind turbine blades P. D. Clausen and F. Reynal, University of Newcastle, Australia and D. H. Wood, University of Calgary, Canada Introduction Requirements for small wind turbine blades Materials and manufacture Blade testing © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 ix 361 363 363 366 371 374 377 382 383 387 387 389 398 400 406 409 411 413 413 416 418 421 x Contents 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Installation and operation Challenges and future trends Acknowledgements References 426 428 429 430 14 Wind turbine blade structural performance testing J. J. Heijdra, M. S. Borst and D. R. V. van Delft, Knowledge Centre WMC, The Netherlands 432 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Introduction Test program Types of tests Test loads Test details Conclusion References 432 433 434 437 441 445 445 Index 446 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contributor contact details (* = main contact) Editors and Chapter 6 P. Brøndsted DTU Wind Energy Technical University of Denmark Building 228 P.O. Box 49 Frederiksborgvej 399 4000 Roskilde, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] R. P. L. Nijssen Knowledge Centre Wind turbine Materials and Constructions (WMC) P.O. Box 43, 1770 AA Wieringerwerf, the Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] K. Branner DTU Wind Energy Technical University of Denmark Building 118 P.O. Box 49 Frederiksborgvej 399 4000 Roskilde, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 2 H. Söker Technical Director Head of Mechanical Loads DEWI GmbH Ebertstrasse 96 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 3 Chapter 1 F. Mølholt Jensen* Bladena Sct. Hansgade 92 DK – 4100 Ringsted, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] C. Bak DTU Wind Energy Technical University of Denmark Building 118 P.O. Box 49 Frederiksborgvej 399 4000 Roskilde, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 xi xii Contributor contact details Chapter 4 W. A. Timmer* Delft University of Technology Faculty of Aerospace Engineering Wind Energy Section Kluyverweg 1 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands D. A. Miller Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Montana State University 220 Roberts Hall Bozeman, MT 59717, USA E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 8 C. Bak DTU Wind Energy Technical University of Denmark Building 118 P.O. Box 49 Frederiksborgvej 399 4000 Roskilde, Denmark A. P. Vassilopoulos École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC) Composite Construction Laboratory (CCLab) BP 2122 (Bat. BP), Station 16 CH – 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 5 J. G. Holierhoek ECN Wind Energy Energy research Centre of the Netherlands P.O. Box 1 1755 ZG Petten, the Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 7 J. F. Mandell* and D. D. Samborsky Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Montana State University 306 Cobleigh Hall Bozeman, MT 59717, USA E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 9 L. Mishnaevsky Jr. DTU Wind Energy Technical University of Denmark Building 228 P.O. Box 49 Frederiksborgvej 399 4000 Roskilde, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 10 D. J. Lekou Wind Energy Section Centre for Renewable Energy Sources and Saving (CRES) 19th km Marathonos Avenue GR-190 09, Pikermi, Greece E-mail: [email protected] © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contributor contact details Chapter 11 B. Madsen,* P. Brøndsted and T. Løgstrup Andersen DTU Wind Energy Technical University of Denmark Building 228 P.O. Box 49 Frederiksborgvej 399 4000 Roskilde, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 12 B. Kjærside Storm Institute for Chemistry and Biotechnology Aalborg University Niels Bohrsvej 8 6700 Esbjerg, Denmark D. H. Wood Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering University of Calgary AB T2N 1N4, Canada E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 14 J. J. Heijdra,* M. S. Borst and D. R. V. van Delft Knowledge Centre Wind Turbine Materials and Constructions (WMC) P.O. Box 43, 1770 AA Wieringerwerf, the Netherlands E-mail: j.j.heijdra@wmc. eu; [email protected]; [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 13 P. D. Clausen* and F. Reynal School of Engineering University of Newcastle NSW 2308, Australia E-mail: Philip.Clausen@newcastle. edu.au © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy 1 Generating power at high efficiency: Combined cycle technology for sustainable energy production Eric Jeffs 2 Advanced separation techniques for nuclear fuel reprocessing and radioactive waste treatment Edited by Kenneth L. Nash and Gregg J. Lumetta 3 Bioalcohol production: Biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass Edited by K. W. Waldron 4 Understanding and mitigating ageing in nuclear power plants: Materials and operational aspects of plant life management (PLiM) Edited by Philip G. Tipping 5 Advanced power plant materials, design and technologys Edited by Dermot Roddy 6 Stand-alone and hybrid wind energy systems: Technology, energy storage and applications Edited by J. K. Kaldellis 7 Biodiesel science and technology: From soil to oil Jan C. J. Bart, Natale Palmeri and Stefano Cavallaro 8 Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology Volume 1: Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, transport and industrial applications Edited by M. Mercedes Maroto-Valer 9 Geological repository systems for safe disposal of spent nuclear fuels and radioactive waste Edited by Joonhong Ahn and Michael J. Apted 10 Wind energy systems: Optimising design and construction for safe and reliable operation Edited by John D. Sørensen and Jens N. Sørensen 11 Solid oxide fuel cell technology: Principles, performance and operations Kevin Huang and John Bannister Goodenough 12 Handbook of advanced radioactive waste conditioning technologies Edited by Michael I. Ojovan xiv © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xv 13 Membranes for clean and renewable power applications Edited by Annarosa Gugliuzza and Angelo Basile 14 Materials for energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings Edited by Matthew R. Hall 15 Handbook of biofuels production: Processes and technologies Edited by Rafael Luque, Juan Campelo and James Clark 16 Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology Volume 2: Carbon dioxide (CO2) storage and utilisation Edited by M. Mercedes Maroto-Valer 17 Oxy-fuel combustion for power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture Edited by Ligang Zheng 18 Small and micro combined heat and power (CHP) systems: Advanced design, performance, materials and applications Edited by Robert Beith 19 Advances in clean hydrocarbon fuel processing: Science and technology Edited by M. Rashid Khan 20 Modern gas turbine systems: High efficiency, low emission, fuel flexible power generation Edited by Peter Jansohn 21 Concentrating solar power technology: Principles, developments and applications Edited by Keith Lovegrove and Wes Stein 22 Nuclear corrosion science and engineering Edited by Damien Féron 23 Power plant life management and performance improvement Edited by John E. Oakey 24 Electrical drives for direct drive renewable energy systems Edited by Markus Mueller and Henk Polinder 25 Advanced membrane science and technology for sustainable energy and environmental applications Edited by Angelo Basile and Suzana Pereira Nunes 26 Irradiation embrittlement of reactor pressure vessels (RPVs) in nuclear power plants Edited by Naoki Soneda 27 High temperature superconductors (HTS) for energy applications Edited by Ziad Melhem 28 Infrastructure and methodologies for the justification of nuclear power programmes Edited by Agustín Alonso 29 Waste to energy conversion technology Edited by Naomi B. Klinghoffer and Marco J. Castaldi © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 xvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy 30 Polymer electrolyte membrane and direct methanol fuel cell technology Volume 1: Fundamentals and performance of low temperature fuel cells Edited by Christoph Hartnig and Christina Roth 31 Polymer electrolyte membrane and direct methanol fuel cell technology Volume 2: In situ characterization techniques for low temperature fuel cells Edited by Christoph Hartnig and Christina Roth 32 Combined cycle systems for near-zero emission power generation Edited by Ashok D. Rao 33 Modern earth buildings: Materials, engineering, construction and applications Edited by Matthew R. Hall, Rick Lindsay and Meror Krayenhoff 34 Metropolitan sustainability: Understanding and improving the urban environment Edited by Frank Zeman 35 Functional materials for sustainable energy applications Edited by John A. Kilner, Stephen J. Skinner, Stuart J. C. Irvine and Peter P. Edwards 36 Nuclear decommissioning: Planning, execution and international experience Edited by Michele Laraia 37 Nuclear fuel cycle science and engineering Edited by Ian Crossland 38 Electricity transmission, distribution and storage systems Edited by Ziad Melhem 39 Advances in biodiesel production: Processes and technologies Edited by Rafael Luque and Juan A. Melero 40 Biomass combustion science, technology and engineering Edited by Lasse Rosendahl 41 Ultra-supercritical coal power plants: Materials, technologies and optimisation Edited by Dongke Zhang 42 Radionuclide behaviour in the natural environment: Science, implications and lessons for the nuclear industry Edited by Christophe Poinssot and Horst Geckeis 43 Calcium and chemical looping technology for power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture: Solid oxygen- and CO2-carriers P. Fennell and E. J. Anthony 44 Materials’ ageing and degradation in light water reactors: Mechanisms, and management Edited by K. L. Murty 45 Structural alloys for power plants: Operational challenges and high-temperature materials Edited by Amir Shirzadi, Rob Wallach and Susan Jackson © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xvii 46 Biolubricants: Science and technology Jan C. J. Bart, Emanuele Gucciardi and Stefano Cavallaro 47 Advances in wind turbine blade design and materials Edited by Povl Brøndsted and Rogier P. L. Nijssen 48 Radioactive waste management and contaminated site clean-up: Processes, technologies and international experience Edited by William E. Lee, Michael I. Ojovan, Carol M. Jantzen 49 Probabilistic safety assessment for optimum nuclear power plant life management (PLiM): Theory and application of reliability analysis methods for major power plant components Gennadij V. Arkadov, Alexander F. Getman and Andrei N. Rodionov 50 The coal handbook Volume 1: Towards cleaner production Edited by D. G. Osborne 51 The coal handbook Volume 2: Coal utilisation Edited by D. G. Osborne 52 The biogas handbook: Science, production and applications Edited by Arthur Wellinger, Jerry Murphy and David Baxter 53 Advances in biorefineries: Biomass and waste supply chain exploitation Edited by K. W. Waldron 54 Geological storage of carbon dioxide (CO2): Geoscience, technologies, environmental aspects and legal frameworks Edited by Jon Gluyas and Simon Mathias 55 Handbook of membrane reactors Volume 1: Fundamental materials science, design and optimisation Edited by Angelo Basile 56 Handbook of membrane reactors Volume 2: Reactor types and industrial applications Edited by Angelo Basile 57 Alternative fuels and advanced vehicle technologies: Towards zero carbon transportation Edited by Richard Folkson 58 Handbook of microalgal bioprocess engineering Christopher Lan and Bei Wang 59 Fluidized bed technologies for near-zero emission combustion and gasification Edited by Fabrizio Scala 60 Managing nuclear projects: A comprehensive management resource Edited by Jas Devgun 61 Handbook of process integration: Minimisation of energy and water use, waste and emissions Edited by Jiří Klemeš © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Introduction Global demand for energy has increased concern about greenhouse effects caused by fossil incineration and fuel consumption. This has resulted in global heating and melting of the ice caps and has necessitated the increasing use of the sustainable energy resources provided by biomass, sun, wave and wind. Over the last 35 years, wind energy has become a prominent part of the solution to these problems, and the development, manufacture and operation of wind energy harvesters is no longer carried out on a small-scale, experimental basis but has grown into a fully modern and mature industrial sector. Wind energy power generation is expected to continue the enormous growth it has enjoyed during recent decades, see Fig. 1.1 It is expected that wind power will deliver 2.5% of the world’s electricity in 2013. Predictions indicate that wind power will be able to meet 8% of the world’s consumption of electricity by 2021, only eight years from now. The average annual growth rate for new installations seems to have slowed down due to the economic recession, and it is expected that for 2013 it will be only 10%, although economic and political predictions indicate that the growth rate will increase and once again reach the rates seen 5–8 years ago. The business driver for wind energy developments and the main challenge is to make the cost of wind energy comparable with that of competing energy sources. The cost of producing kWhs over the lifetime of the wind turbine, the Cost of Energy (CoE), is roughly estimated from2: CoE = CoT + CoI + CoM PP where: CoT = Cost of the Turbine, CoI = Cost of the Installation and Transportation, CoM = Cost of the Operation and Maintenance during the lifetime of the turbine, PP = Power Produced. xix © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013