Tài liệu Tiếng anh ngoại ngữ grammar of english

ENGLISH GRAMMAR This best-selling comprehensive descriptive grammar forms a complete course, ideal for all students studying English Language, whether on a course or for self-study. Broadly based on Hallidayan systemic-functional grammar but also drawing on cognitive linguistics and discourse analysis, English Grammar is accessible, avoiding overly theoretical or technical explanations. The book consists of twelve self-contained chapters built around language functions, and each chapter is divided into units of class-length material. Key features include: •• •• •• Numerous authentic texts from a wide range of sources, both spoken and written, which exemplify the grammatical description; Clear chapter and unit summaries which enable efficient class preparation and student revision; Extensive exercises with a comprehensive answer key. This new edition has been thoroughly updated with new texts, a more user-friendly layout, more American English examples and a companion website, providing extra tasks, a glossary and a teachers’ guide. This is the essential coursebook and reference work for all native and non-native students of English grammar on English language and linguistics courses. Angela Downing is Professor Emeritus at Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain. She was General Editor of Atlantis (Journal of the Spanish Association of English and American Studies) from 2006 to 2012 and has published numerous articles on grammar and discourse. This page intentionally left blank ENGLISH GRAMMAR A university course Third edition Angela Downing Third edition published 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Angela Downing The right of Angela Downing to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First published 1992 by Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd Routledge edition first published 2002 Second edition published 2006 by Routledge British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Downing, Angela. English grammar: a university course/Angela Downing.—Third edition. p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. English language—Grammar. 2. English language—Grammar—Problems, exercises, etc. 3. English language—Textbooks for foreign speakers. I. Title. PE1112.D68 2015 428.2—dc23 2014024429 ISBN: 978-0-415-73267-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-73268-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-75004-0 (ebk) Typeset in Amasis by Swales and Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK CONTENTS List of figures ix Preface to the third edition xi Acknowledgements xii Introduction to the third edition xiv Table of notational symbols xviii   1 Basic concepts 1 Unit 1 Language and meaning Unit 2 Linguistic forms and syntactic functions Unit 3 Negation and expansion Exercises 3 9 21 28   2 The skeleton of the message: introduction to clause structure 31 Unit 4 Syntactic elements and structures of the clause Unit 5 Subject and Predicator Unit 6 Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Objects Unit 7 Subject and Object Complements Unit 8 Adjuncts Further reading Exercises 33 40 47 60 65 72 72   3 The development of the message: complementation of the verb 77 Introduction: Major complementation patterns and valency 79 Unit 9 Intransitive and copular patterns 81 Unit10 Transitive patterns 85 Unit 11 Complementation by finite clauses 94 Unit 12 Complementation by non-finite clauses 101 Summary of major verb complementation patterns 107 Further reading 108 Exercises 108 vi  ENGLISH GRAMMAR   4 Interaction between speaker and hearer: linking speech acts and grammar 111 Unit 13 Speech acts and clause types Unit 14 The declarative and interrogative clause types Unit 15 The exclamative and imperative clause types Unit 16 Indirect speech acts, clause types and discourse functions Unit 17 Questions, clause types and discourse functions Unit 18 Directives: getting people to carry out actions Further reading Exercises   5 Conceptualising patterns of experience: processes, participants, circumstances Unit 19 Conceptualising experiences expressed as situation types Unit 20 Material processes of doing and happening Unit 21 Causative processes Unit 22 Processes of transfer Unit 23 Conceptualising what we think, perceive and feel Unit 24 Relational processes of being and becoming Unit 25 Processes of saying, behaving and existing Unit 26 Expressing attendant circumstances Unit 27 Conceptualising experiences from a different angle:   Nominalisation and grammatical metaphor Further reading Exercises   6 Organising the message: thematic and information structures of the clause Unit 28 Theme: the point of departure of the message Unit 29 The distribution and focus of information Unit 30 The interplay of Theme–Rheme and Given–New Further reading Exercises   7 Combining clauses into sentences Unit 31 Clause combining: the complex sentence Unit 32 Relationships of equivalence between clauses Unit 33 Relationships of non-equivalence between clauses Unit 34 Subordination and subordinators Unit 35 Discourse functions of conjunctions Unit 36 Reporting speech and thought Further reading Exercises 113 117 126 133 137 141 148 149 153 155 160 164 169 171 176 182 186 190 197 197 203 205 220 227 242 243 247 249 253 258 261 267 271 279 280 CONTENTS    8 Talking about events: the Verbal Group Unit 37 Expressing our experience of events Unit 38 Basic structures of the Verbal Group Unit 39 Organising our experience of events Unit 40 The semantics of phrasal verbs Further reading Exercises   9 Viewpoints on events: tense, aspect and modality vii 285 287 293 300 303 310 311 315 Unit 41 Expressing location in time through the verb: tense Unit 42 Past events and present time connected: Present Perfect   and Past Perfect Unit 43 Situation types and the Progressive aspect Unit 44 Expressing attitudes towards the event: modality Further reading Exercises 326 334 343 355 356 10 Talking about people and things: the Nominal Group 359 Unit 45 Expressing our experience of people and things Unit 46 Referring to people and things as definite, indefinite, generic Unit 47 Selecting and particularising the referent: the determiner Unit 48 Describing and classifying the referent: the pre-modifier Unit 49 Identifying and elaborating the referent: the post-modifier Unit 50 Noun complement clauses Further reading Exercises 11 Describing persons, things and circumstances: adjectival and adverbial groups Unit 51 Adjectives and the adjectival group Unit 52 Degrees of comparison and intensification Unit 53 Complementation of the adjective Unit 54 Adverbs and the adverbial group Unit 55 Syntactic functions of adverbs and adverbial groups Unit 56 Modification and complementation in the adverbial group Further reading Exercises 12 Spatial, temporal and other relationships: the Prepositional Phrase Unit 57 Prepositions and the Prepositional Phrase Unit 58 Syntactic functions of the Prepositional Phrase 317 361 375 381 392 401 410 414 414 419 421 428 437 443 448 455 459 459 465 467 475 viii  ENGLISH GRAMMAR Unit 59 Semantic features of the Prepositional Phrase Further reading Exercises 479 487 487 Answer Key 491 Select Bibliography 509 Index 513 FIGURES 1.1 Participant, process and circumstances 5 1.2 Semantic roles 5 1.3 Order of syntactic elements in the declarative clause 6 1.4 Order of syntactic elements in the interrogative clause 6 1.5 Theme-Rheme order 7 1.6 Combining the three structures 7 1.7 Units on the rank scale 11 1.8 Components and realisations 19 2.1 Subject and Predicator 34 2.2 Object (O) and Complement (C) 34 2.3 Direct Object (Od) and Indirect Object (Oi) 35 2.4 Complement types 35 2.5 Anticipatory ‘it’ as stand-in for displaced Subject 44 2.6 Anticipatory ‘it’ as Object + clause as Object 49 2.7 Recipient as Indirect Object and Beneficiary as Indirect Object 51 2.8 Recipient as Subject and Beneficiary as Subject 52 2.9.1 Multi-word verb and Object 58 2.9.2 Verb and PP as Adjunct or Comp 58 2.10 Manner of movement – Extent – Path – Goal – Purpose 68 3.1 Main clause and embedded nominal wh-clause 95 4.1 Clause types or moods 114 4.2 Correspondence between clause types and speech acts 114 4.3 Clause types and the ordering of the subject and finite 118 4.4 Imperative and declarative 129 4.5 Negative and emphasis 130 4.6 Let’s and Let us 131 4.7 Clause types and illocutionary force 147 5.1 The circumstantial role 157 5.2 Agentive Subject of a voluntary process of ‘doing’ 161 5.3 Affected participant in a voluntary process of ‘doing’ 161 5.4 Affected Subject in a passive clause 161 5.5 Force 162 5.6 Involuntary processes of ‘happening’ 163 5.7 Transitive-causative structure 164 x  ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5.8 Anti-causative structure 5.9 Analytical causatives with a resulting attribute 5.10 Summary of examples of transitivity structures in material processes  5.11 Examples of mental processes 5.12 Examples of cognitive processes 5.13 Carrier with its Attribute 5.14 Current Attribute and resulting Attribute 5.15 The be/belong possessive structure 5.16 Verbs of possession in the Possessor/Possessed structure 5.17 Verbal processes 5.18 Place and time 5.19 Basic realisations of semantic roles 5.20 Nominalised realisations of semantic roles 5.21 Two cognitive mappings of a situation 5.22 High and low transitivity 5.23 Main types of processes, participants and circumstances 6.1 Theme and Rheme 6.2 Multiple Themes 6.3 Themes derived from a Hypertheme 7.1 Direct and indirect speech 8.1 Constituent elements of the English verbal group 8.2 Be, have and do 8.3 Verbs + particles (phrasal verbs) 9.1 Speech time as reference time 9.2 The scope of the simple Present tense 9.3 The Present Perfect and the Past tense 9.4 Adjuncts of indefinite time and adjuncts of definite time 9.5 Lexical aspect of English verbs 10.1 Pre-head, head and post-head in nominal groups 10.2 Basic structure of the nominal group 10.3 Definite and indefinite reference 10.4 Summary of determinative features 10.5 Descriptors and classifiers and their ordering 10.6 Defining and supplementive adverbs 11.1 Structure of the adjectival group 11.2 Grading options in English for comparative and superlative adjectives 11.3 Interrelated uses of certain time adverbs 12.1 Structure of the prepositional phrase 12.2 Prepositions and adverbs 165 166 170 172 175 177 177 179 179 183 186 191 191 192 195 196 217 218 229 275 288 289 307 318 319 327 329 336 362 363 375 390 399 408 422 430 453 468 478 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION In consonance with the welcome suggestions made by Routledge and reviewers alike, this book has been revised again for its third edition with certain aims in mind. The first, in this age of cuts, was to slim down the content as regards the length of the text, without losing the character and coherence of the whole. This I have proceeded to do, reducing the length of each chapter as well as that of other sections. Offsetting this pruning, there was the need to cover or amplify certain areas of the grammar that had been underdeveloped in previous editions, despite their importance. Such is the case with conditional sentences. They are complex enough for non-native students to be wary of using them, yet at the same time common enough in interpersonal interaction, both spoken and written, to warrant careful attention and practice. They also have interesting variants which students may be unaware of. The gap is now filled in Chapter 7. A further aim has been to increase the projection of the grammar to an American readership. Differences of grammar between Standard American and Standard British English, which already appear in the second edition, are now more numerous and explicit; wherever possible, they are accompanied by authentic illustrations. It is wellknown that the major differences between these two standard forms of English lie in the lexis rather than in the grammar, and that features of American grammar are soon taken up and adopted, especially by young British speakers. New illustrations, both one-liners and short texts, have been selected so as to provide, at the same time, American lexical items that differ from their British English counterparts. Comparisons of American with British English as regards grammar in use are made where the grammatical point in question is being discussed, and are signalled as AmE vs BrE. A further detail is that the term Module is now replaced by Unit, as being more transparent to American readers. I feel confident that Philip Locke, were he still alive, would welcome these further changes, together with those already carried out in the second edition of 2006. Without his invaluable collaboration in the writing of the first edition, published in 1992, it is likely that the whole conception of English Grammar, A University Course might have been different. I am particularly indebted to him for his enormous enthusiasm combined with unflappability, which made our joint collaboration so enjoyable. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My debt to my predecessors is, as before, very great. In addition to the grammars of Michael Halliday, Randolph Quirk, Sydney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, the wealth of information, corpus examples and frequencies provided by the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, by Douglas Biber and his colleagues Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finegan, have been a reliable resource of great value. Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum’s A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar, based on their previous Cambridge Grammar of Contemporary English, though not specifically a functional grammar, is both informative and a pleasure to read. Aimed at students who will shortly be seeking employment, these texts argue for the advantages of having a knowledge of grammar, an ability to express thoughts clearly and the capacity to analyse a sentence or paragraph for the meanings they will or will not support, all of which I wholly endorse. I also thank C.W.K. Gleerup, Lund, for A Corpus of English Conversation edited by Jan Svartvik and Randolph Quirk. Specialised grammars such as those of Geoff Thompson, Thomas and Meriel Bloor, Lachlan Mackenzie and Elena Martínez Caro among others have their place on my bookshelves. Specialised monographs and articles have had to be kept to a minimum in the Select Bibliography. I am grateful for access to BYU-BNC (based on the British National Corpus from Oxford University Press) (Davies (2004–) and for the use of the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) (Davies (2008–). I am indebted to the many friends, colleagues and consultants who have made helpful comments on the previous editions. Among the consultants I was pleased to receive the reports and suggestions made by Joyce Stavick, of the University of North Georgia, by Pentii Haddington, of the University of Oulu, Finland and by the anonymous reviewer who provided perceptive comments and questions. I have implemented as many of their suggestions as has been possible in the time allowed. Also much appreciated were the many useful comments made by Mike Hannay (Free University, Amsterdam), Andrei Stoevsky (University of Sofia), Chris Butler (University of Wales, Swansea), Hilde Hasselgård (University of Oslo) and Bruce Taylor (University of Boston). I owe thanks to Geoff Thompson (University of Liverpool) for allowing me to use the best real-life spontaneous utterance of multiple left-detachment, and more recently, some of his striking examples of adjective-headed generic nouns. Thanks also to Thomas Givón and White Cloud Publishing for allowing me to insert an extract from his novel Downfall of a Jesuit. I remember with affection Emilio Lorenzo of the Real Academia Española, and his words of encouragement when the first edition was at an embryonic stage. I would especially like to express my thanks to Chris Butler and to Jorge Arús (Universidad Complutense) for their unfailing willingness to come to my ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  xiii rescue in technological matters; to Paloma Tejada, also of the Complutense for reading through the whole second edition and providing me with abundant comments; to Laura Alba (UNED) for first-hand confirmation of unusual items of American English, Carmen Santamaría (Universidad de Alcalá) for drawing my attention to certain details and Laura Hidalgo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) for reading through many sections of the new edition in preparation; my boundless gratitude go to both Enrique and Eduardo Hidalgo for their help with the diagrams. My thanks go also to Louisa Semlyen for offering me the opportunity of a third edition, and to Sophie Jaques and Rosemary Baron of Routledge for their patience and help. Thanks also to copy editor Jane Olorenshaw and to Tamsin Ballard, Julie Willis and the production team at Swales and Willis Ltd. on behalf of Taylor and Francis for efficient work prior to and during production. Finally, I thank my long-suffering family for their constant support and encouragement. INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION AIMS OF THE COURSE This book has been written primarily for undergraduate and graduate students of English as a foreign or second language. It is also addressed to teachers and lecturers, whether native or non-native speakers of English, and to others interested in applying a broadly functional approach to language teaching in higher education. It assumes an intermediate standard of knowledge and practical handling of the language and, from this point of departure, seeks to fulfil the following aims: 1 to further students’ knowledge of English through exploration and analysis; 2 to help students acquire an integrated vision of English, rather than concentrate on unrelated areas; 3 to see a grammar as providing a means of understanding the relation of form to meaning, and meaning to use, in context; 4 to provide a basic terminology which, within this framework, will enable students to make these relationships explicit; 5 to stimulate the learners’ capacity to interact with others in English and to express themselves appropriately in everyday registers, both spoken and written. While not pretending to be exhaustive, its wide coverage and functional approach have been found appropriate not only in first degree courses but also in postgraduate programmes and as a background resource for courses, publications and work on translation, stylistics, reading projects and discourse studies. A FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO GRAMMAR A functional grammar is functional in various ways. In the first place, it does not consist of a set of rules governing all forms of grammatical structures and their relation to one another, with a concern that they are ‘well-formed’. Rather, a functional approach is geared towards meaning and aims to show how meanings are expressed in different forms according to speakers’ and writers’ communicative goals. This view is based, following Michael Halliday, on the assumption that all languages fulfil two higher-level functions (metafunctions) in our lives. One is to express our interpretation of the world as we experience it (sometimes called the ‘ideational’ or the ‘representational’ function); the other is to interact with others in order to bring about changes in the environment (the ‘interpersonal’ function). How we put together or ‘organise’ what we say or INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION  xv write in such a way that the ‘message’ is coherent and relevant to the situation represents a third (the ‘textual’ meta-function), and this, too, is given its place in a functional grammar. Second, the regular patterns of different kinds that can be distinguished in language reflect the uses which a language serves. For instance, the clause types known as ‘declarative’, ‘interrogative’ and ‘imperative’ serve the purposes of expressing a multitude of types of social behaviour, such as making statements, asking questions and giving orders. In this area the pragmatic concepts of speech acts, politeness, relevance and inference are brought in to explain how speakers use and interpret linguistic forms and sequences in English within cultural settings. In describing the more detailed mechanisms of English, the notion of ‘function’ is used to describe syntactic categories such as Subjects and Objects, semantic roles such as Agent and informational categories such as Theme and Rheme, Given and New. We shall see, for instance that in English the Agent, that is, the semantic role indicating the one who instigates or carries out an action, typically conflates with the Subject: ‘Tom’ in Tom spent all the money; furthermore, the grammatical Subject in a clause tends to occur initially in English, thus occupying the same position as Theme as well as Agent. Subject, Agent, Theme is not a rigid choice, however: the elements can be moved around, as shown in 1.3.2. A functional approach also will point out the formal differences, but the principal aim will be to explain how different variations of form affect meanings, and how speakers and writers use meanings and forms to interact in social settings. Third, this type of grammar is functional in that each linguistic element is seen not in isolation but in relation to others, since it has potential to realise different functions. Structural patterns are seen as functional patterns of constituents, whether of participants and processes, of modifiers and head of, for instance, a noun, or of Subject, verb and Complements, among others. These in turn are realised in a variety of ways according to the communicative effect desired. Speakers and writers are free, within the resources a particular language displays, to choose those patterns which best carry out their communicative purposes at every stage of their interaction with other speakers and readers. With these considerations in mind, the present book has been designed to place meaning firmly within the grammar and, by stressing the meaningful functions of grammatical forms and structures, to offer a description of the grammatical phenomena of English in use, both in speech and writing. This book, we hope, may serve as a foundation for further study in specific areas or as a resource for the designing of other materials for specific purposes. PRESENTATION OF CONTENT The grammatical content of the course is presented in three blocks: •• •• a first chapter giving a bird’s-eye view of the whole course and defining the basic concepts and terms used in it; seven chapters describing clausal and sentence patterns, together with their corresponding elements of structure, from syntactic, semantic, textual and communicative-pragmatic points of view; and xvi  ENGLISH GRAMMAR •• five chapters dealing similarly with nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial and prepositional groups and phrases. In each case the aim is that of describing each pattern or structural element in use, rather than that of entering in depth into any particular theory. Chapter titles attempt to reflect, as far as possible, the communicative viewpoints from which the description is made. The twelve chapters are divided into ‘units’ (fifty-nine in all), each one being conceived as a teaching and learning unit with appropriate exercises and activities grouped at the end of each chapter. Each unit begins with a summary, which presents the main matters of interest. It is designed to assist both teacher and students in class preparation and to offer a review for study purposes. Exemplification Many of the one-line examples which illustrate each grammatical point have been drawn or derived from actual observation. Some of these have been shortened or simplified in order to illustrate a grammatical point with maximum clarity. A further selection of examples is taken from the BYU-BNC corpus, based on the British National Corpus, and other acknowledged sources, both American and British, including short excerpts of connected speech. These have not been modified. They are intended to illustrate the natural use of the features being described. Exercises and activities Each of the units which make up the course is accompanied by a varying number of practice exercises and activities. Some involve the observation and identification of syntactic elements and their semantic functions, or of the relations between them; others call for the manipulation or completion of sentences in various meaningful ways. The different areas of grammar lend themselves to a wide variety of practical linguistic activities limited only by the time factor. Those proposed here can be selected, adapted, amplified or omitted, according to need. An answer key is provided at the end of the book for those analytical exercises which have a single solution, which are now the vast majority. Activities that have no solution of this kind, such as discussions, have been mostly avoided in this edition. Where a suggestion seems useful, it has been provided. It is the opinion of the author that university study should not attend solely to the attainment of certain practical end-results. Its value lies to a great extent in the thinking that goes on in the process of ensuring the results, not only in the results themselves. It is rather in the performance of a task that the learning takes place. The premature reference to a key negates the whole purpose of the tasks and should be resisted at all costs. SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THE BOOK The chapters which comprise this book can be used selectively, either singly or in blocks. In starting with the clause, the aim has been to provide a global frame, both INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION  xvii syntactic and semantic, into which the lower-ranking units of nominal, verbal and other groups naturally fit, as can be seen in Chapter 2. Moreover, experience shows that to reach a suitably advanced level and coverage for future use of English professionally, a knowledge of the clause and the ability to handle such areas as clause combining, tense, aspect and modality are essential, and have perhaps not been acquired earlier, whereas nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs will have been taught at least on a basic level. It is perfectly possible, however, to reverse the order of chapters, starting for instance with the verbal or nominal groups and using the subsequent chapters as a course on grammar ‘below the clause’, if this is found more convenient. The function of each of these groups within the clause is described briefly with examples. Morphological information is provided in each of these chapters. The overview which comprises Chapter 1 may be found by instructors to contain formal material already known to their students, in which case it will be more profitable to start at a more relaxed pace with Chapter 2 and use the overview for checking specific constructions. Chapters 2 and 3 together provide an introduction to functional syntax, including complementation of the verb, while Chapter 4 addresses the grammar of interpersonal interaction and 5 that of basic semantic roles. Chapter 6 on the grammatical resources used in information packaging, Chapter 7 on clause combining and 9 on tense, aspect and modality, respectively, could make up a short specialised course. Related areas and topics are ‘signposted’ by cross-references. Whether the book is studied with or without guidance, access to contents of each chapter the grammatical terms and topics treated in it is facilitated in four ways: 1 2 3 4 5 by the initial list of chapter and unit headings; by the Summary that precedes each unit and specifies the main points dealt with; by the section and subsection headings listed at the beginning of each chapter; by the alphabetical list of items, terms and topics given in the general Index at the end of the book. by the abundant cross-references which facilitate the linking of one area to another. Reference is made to the number and section of the unit in which an item is explained. TABLE OF NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS NOTE TO READERS: Examples of British English with a three-character identifier are taken from the BYUBNC (Davies 2004–), based on The British National Corpus from Oxford University Press. Available online at http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc. Examples of American English, also with a three-character identifier, are taken from The Corpus of Contemporary American English: 450 million words, 1990–present (COCA) (Davies 2008–). Available online at http://corpus.byu.edu/coca. CLASSES OF UNITS SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE cl clause fin.cl finite clause non-fin.cl non-finite clause -ing cl -ing participial clause -en cl past participial clause inf.cl infinitive clause to-inf. cl to-infinitive clause wh-cl wh-clause NG nominal group AdjG adjectival group AdvG adverbial group PP prepositional phrase VG verbal group n noun pron pronoun adj adjective adv adverb conj conjunction prep preposition v verb (as word class) v-ing present participle v to-inf to-infinitive v-en  past participle (of both regular and irregular verbs) p particle S subject P predicator O object Od direct object Oi indirect object PO prepositional object C Complement Cs Complement of the subject Co Complement of the object Cloc Locative/ Goal Complement PC Prepositional Complement A adjunct F finite h head m modifier (pre- and post-modifier) d determiner e epithet clas. Classifier des descriptor c complement (of noun, adjective,   adverb and preposition) o operator x auxiliary verb v lexical verb, main verb TA B L E O F N O TAT I O N A L S Y M B O L S   x i x SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS Ag Agent Aff Affected Rec Recipient Ben Beneficiary UNIT BOUNDARIES OTHER SYMBOLS ||| || | * ungrammatical or unacceptable form in Standard English (?) doubtfully acceptable ( ) optional element / alternative form + coordination, addition X dependency [ ] embedded unit † keyed exercise 1, 2, etc. superscript marking item in extract BrE British English AmE American English vs versus complex sentence clause group Tonicity // end of tone unit / rising tone \ falling tone Λ rising-falling tone falling-rising tone CAPITAL  letters are used to indicate the peak of information focus in the tone unit Λ Pauses from brief to long – – – –––