American Society for Public Administration
Series in Public Administration and Public Policy
LocaL Economic
DEvELopmEnt anD
thE EnvironmEnt
finding Common ground
SuSan M. Opp
Jeffery L. OSgOOd, Jr.
LOCAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
Finding Common Ground
American Society for Public Administration
American Society for Public Administration
Book Series on Public Administration & Public Policy
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American Society for Public Administration
Series in Public Administration and Public Policy
LOCAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
Finding Common Ground
SUSAN M. OPP
JEFFERY L. OSGOOD, JR.
CRC Press
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Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................... xiii
About the Authors........................................................................................xvii
Contributors..................................................................................................xix
Acknowledgments...................................................................................... xxiii
Section I
SETTING THE CONTEXT: THEORIES AND
CONCEPTS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
AND SUSTAINABILITY
1 Local Economic Development and Environmental Protection:
The Intersection.......................................................................................3
Suburbanization, Economic Decline, and Local Economic Development.......5
Sprawl..................................................................................................5
Local Economic Development......................................................................7
History of Local Economic Development Practice..............................8
Wave One Strategies for Economic Development.......................9
Wave Two Strategies for Economic Development.....................10
Wave Three Strategies for Economic Development...................10
Sustainability and Sustainable Economic Development..............................11
Sustainable Cities..............................................................................11
Conclusion..................................................................................................12
References...................................................................................................13
2 Sustainability and the Built Environment............................................17
Revitalization and Redevelopment: Remedial Efforts.................................18
How Did Cities Evolve?.....................................................................19
Moving Forward in American Cities: Revitalization..........................20
Greenfields, Grayfields, Brownfields, and Infill........................20
Gentrification...........................................................................21
Development and Grayfields....................................................23
vii
viii ◾ Contents
Development and Brownfields..................................................25
Anticipatory Development..........................................................................27
Mixed-Use Development...................................................................27
Affordable Housing...........................................................................28
Growth Boundaries...........................................................................28
Low-Impact Development.................................................................28
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: New Hanover County,
North Carolina...........................................................................................29
References...................................................................................................35
3 Energy, the Environment, and Economics............................................37
Current State of Energy in the United States..............................................38
Nonrenewable Energy Sources...........................................................39
Petroleum Issues.......................................................................39
Natural Gas Issues....................................................................41
Coal Issues............................................................................... 42
Nuclear Issues.......................................................................... 44
Global Climate Change............................................................45
Renewable Energy Sources: Clean Energy.........................................45
Biomass/Biofuels..................................................................... 46
Water/Hydroelectric................................................................ 46
Geothermal..............................................................................47
Wind........................................................................................47
Solar.........................................................................................47
The Intersection of Economic Development and Energy: Using Clean
Energy for Local Economic Development...................................................48
Manufacturing..................................................................................48
Grayfields, Brownfields, and Clean Energy Manufacturing........48
Incentives...........................................................................................50
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: Portland, Oregon.............................50
References...................................................................................................62
4 Green Transportation: An Amenity Approach......................................67
Green/Sustainable Transportation..............................................................68
Existing Infrastructure Techniques....................................................69
Public Bus................................................................................70
Light Rail.................................................................................71
Walking and Biking.................................................................72
Efficient Vehicles......................................................................75
Conclusions and the Concepts in Action: Tucson, Arizona.........................76
References.................................................................................................. 90
Contents ◾ ix
Section II
IMPLEMENTATION: THE SUSTAINABLE
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT TOOLKIT
5 The Greening of Public Administration................................................95
History of the Environmental Movement...................................................96
Regulation for Environmental Protection..........................................96
Efficiency-Based Reform....................................................................97
Market-Based Policies...............................................................98
Effects of Market-Based Policies...............................................99
Focus on Sustainability....................................................................100
Sustainability and Public Administration........................................101
Sustainable Communities: Greening of Local Governments.....................102
Local Government Sustainability Toolkit........................................103
Direct Action..........................................................................103
Indirect Action.......................................................................103
Green Procurement and Human Resource Management.................105
Green Procurement................................................................105
Green Human Resource Management...................................106
Indicators of Sustainability..............................................................108
Santa Monica’s Sustainability Plan.........................................108
Types of Indicators.................................................................108
Resource Conservation...........................................................109
Economic Development.........................................................109
The Importance of Indicators................................................. 110
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: San Antonio, Texas, and
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania........................................................................ 110
References.................................................................................................124
6 Public–Private Partnerships for Sustainable Economic
Development.......................................................................................129
Characteristics of Public–Private Partnerships..........................................130
Types of Public–Private Partnerships........................................................131
Degree of Shared Risk and Responsibility.......................................131
Twelve Models of Public–Private Partnerships.................................132
Building Agreements..............................................................132
Contract Agreements..............................................................133
Leasing Agreements................................................................133
Advantages, Disadvantages, and Common Pitfalls...................................134
Advantages of PPPs..........................................................................134
Disadvantages of PPPs.....................................................................135
Common Pitfalls of PPPs.................................................................136
Practical Issues in PPP Formation.............................................................137
Understanding the Regulatory Environment...................................138
x ◾ Contents
Defining Project Goals and Meeting the Public Interest..................139
Determining Responsibility.............................................................139
Sustainability and Public–Private Partnerships......................................... 141
Wastewater Treatment in Santa Paula, California............................ 141
Heating and Cooling Improvement in Nashville, Tennessee............142
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: Cookeville, Tennessee....................142
References.................................................................................................150
7 University–Community Partnerships for Sustainable Economic
Development.......................................................................................153
History of University–Community Partnerships......................................154
Establishing University–Community Partnerships................................... 155
Identifying the Partners...................................................................156
Stages of the Process........................................................................ 157
Engagement............................................................................ 157
Deliberation...........................................................................160
Implementation...................................................................... 161
Challenges to University–Community Partnerships.................................162
Communication..............................................................................162
Relationship Management...............................................................163
Capacity Planning...........................................................................163
Federal Efforts at University–Community Partnerships...........................163
Partnerships for Sustainability and Economic Development.....................164
SmartStreet, Grand Rapids, Michigan.............................................165
Sustainable City Year, University of Oregon.................................... 165
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign’s Smart Energy Design Assistance Center..............................166
References.................................................................................................177
8 Seeking Economic Development through Eminent Domain,
Environmental Remediation, and Redevelopment..............................181
The Legal Environment of Eminent Domain............................................182
Eminent Domain Interpreted..........................................................182
Kelo v. City of New London..............................................................183
State-Level Eminent Domain Legislation after Kelo...............185
Municipal Ordinances and Eminent Domain....................... 200
Just Compensation: The Other Constitutional Requirement................... 200
Valuation of Contaminated Properties.............................................201
Eminent Domain, Economic Development, and Environmental
Remediation.............................................................................................203
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: San Diego, California................... 204
References.................................................................................................216
Contents ◾ xi
9 Tax Increment Financing for Sustainable Economic Development....219
What Is Tax Increment Financing?.......................................................... 220
Key Questions to Consider When Exploring TIF.....................................221
The Importance of Analysis.............................................................223
Private Sector Considerations..........................................................223
Political Considerations...................................................................224
Tax Increment Financing Laws.................................................................224
State Restrictions.............................................................................224
Statutory Conditions.......................................................................225
“But For” Requirements........................................................225
Public Hearings and Cost–Benefit Analysis........................... 226
Blight.................................................................................... 226
Other Requirements........................................................................227
Project-Specific versus District-Wide TIF.................................................239
Project-Specific TIF.........................................................................239
District-Wide TIF............................................................................239
Common Steps in TIF Creation..............................................................240
General TIF Creation Steps.............................................................241
TIF Creation in Illinois...................................................................242
Tax Increment Financing and Sustainable Development..........................243
Atlantic Station, Atlanta, Georgia....................................................243
Buzz Westfall Plaza, Jennings, Missouri......................................... 244
Lessons Learned.............................................................................. 244
Conclusions and Concepts in Action: Fort Worth, Texas........................ 244
References.................................................................................................255
10 Grant Administration and Project Analysis........................................259
Intergovernmental Grants to Help Pay for Sustainable Economic
Development............................................................................................259
Locating and Applying for Federal Government Grants................. 260
Applying for a Federal Grant...........................................................262
State to Local Government Grants..................................................265
Rules and Regulations for the Newly Awarded City........................265
Performance Tracking and Reports: Program Evaluation and Fiscal
Impact Analysis....................................................................................... 266
Performance Reports and Information Gathering........................... 266
Fiscal Impact Analysis.................................................................... 268
FIA in the City of Upper Arlington, Ohio.......................................270
Conclusion................................................................................................271
References.................................................................................................271
xii ◾ Contents
11 Federal and State Resources for Sustainable Economic
Development Efforts............................................................................273
Federal and State Environmental Remediation/Redevelopment
Programs...................................................................................................273
RCRA and CERCLA......................................................................274
RCRA....................................................................................274
CERCLA................................................................................275
RCRA, Superfund, and Brownfields......................................277
Federal and State Programs for Remediation and Brownfield
Redevelopment................................................................................278
State Remediation Programs...................................................278
Green Technology and Energy Efficiency................................................ 280
State Energy Efficient Programs.......................................................281
Conclusion................................................................................................282
Note..........................................................................................................282
References.................................................................................................283
12 Finding Common Ground: Local Economic Development and the
Environment........................................................................................285
Economic Development versus Economic Growth.................................. 286
Institutions and Sustainable Economic Development...............................287
Experiences with Economic Development and Sustainability...................288
Strategies for Sustainable Economic Development....................................289
Key Challenges and the Future.................................................................291
References.................................................................................................291
Appendix......................................................................................................293
Preface
Setting the Context: Theories and Concepts of
Economic Development and Sustainability
Public officials, nonprofit administrators, and policymakers are often presented
with arguments that sustainability and economic development are opposing goals.
This, however, need not to be the case. Section I of this book provides an introduction to the academic and practical intersection of the environment and local economic development. Chapters in Section I address questions, such as:
◾◾ What exactly is sustainable economic development? Is it something that local
administrators can engage in?
◾◾ How can development be pursued while worrying about protecting the natural environment?
◾◾ How does energy and transportation relate to sustainability and economic development?
◾◾ How have some local governments engaged in these aspects of sustainable
economic development?
Throughout Section I (Chapter 1 to Chapter 4), real-world examples are used
to assist the interested local administrator with understanding how these concepts
relate in the real world. Wilmington, North Carolina’s, experience with low-impact
development provides an excellent example of the cost-savings potential of one type
of sustainability initiative: low-impact development. Portland, Oregon, provides an
in-depth look at how clean energy can be integrated into a larger community-wide
economic development plan. Tucson, Arizona, illustrates sustainable transportation initiatives that spur economic activity. At the end of this section, readers will
have a broader understanding of sustainable economic development from an academic and comprehensive perspective.
xiii
xiv ◾ Preface
Implementation: The Sustainable
Economic Development Toolkit
While Section I of this book provided a broader, more academic, look at sustainability and economic development, Section II moves to a more practitioner-oriented
examination of the tools available for pursuing sustainable economic development.
Through these chapters, it becomes apparent that the current economic toolkit
need only be slightly tweaked and it too can help to find the common ground
between sustainability and economic development.
Starting with a review of how public administration and sustainability have
come to embody similar ideals and concluding with a review of the financial and
technical aspects of implementing sustainable economic development, Chapter 5
through Chapter 12 cover a wide variety of issues related to implementation and
tools for sustainable economic development. While certainly not an all-exhaustive
listing, the chapters in this section offer concrete explanation and illustration of
many of the most common tools used in economic development, but in such a way
that they are now elevating the principles of sustainability. Questions this section
of the book addresses include:
◾◾ How has the discipline and practice of Public Administration addressed
sustainability?
◾◾ What is a public–private partnership? How can it help me?
◾◾ Can my local college or university help in sustainable economic development efforts?
◾◾ Eminent domain: What do I need to know? How is it related to blight and
contamination? What did Kelo v. New London mean for a local government?
◾◾ Tax increment financing: Can I use it in my project?
Several important examples are used throughout the chapters in this section
to help provide illustration of concepts. Cookeville, Tennessee, offers insights
into the role that public–private partnerships can play in sustainable economic
development. The experience of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
and the Smart Energy Design Assistance Center offers lessons to cities on effective town-gown partnerships. Learning more about San Diego’s experience with
their ballpark district redevelopment provides important insights into eminent
domain. Finally, the complex Trinity River project in Fort Worth, Texas, illustrates the complexity to some redevelopment projects that utilize tax increment
financing, eminent domain, and other tools simultaneously to achieve successful development.
Sustainable economic development will often require outside financial and
technical support to be successful. The two penultimate chapters in Section II provide readers with a look at the variety of resources available and information on how
to best obtain these resources. Important information on grant administration,
Preface ◾ xv
funding availability, and grant applications is provided in Chapter 10. Chapter 11
provides readers with an overview of the federal and state resources available for
sustainable economic development efforts. Questions addressed in these chapters
include:
◾◾
◾◾
◾◾
◾◾
What kinds of grants exist? Where do I look?
What does a beginner need to know about finding and applying for a grant?
How are regulations and grants connected?
What programs exist to assist with remediation and redevelopment efforts
directed at contaminated properties? Where do I start?
◾◾ What laws do I need to be concerned with in my remediation/redevelopment efforts?
◾◾ What resources exist for energy efficiency projects to help my community
save money while being more resource efficient?
About the Authors
Susan M. Opp, PhD, is currently an assistant professor of Political Science at Colorado
State University, Fort Collins. Dr. Opp’s
professional experience cuts across both the
academic and practitioner worlds. In her
various professional roles, she has served
as the director of a NASPAA (National
Association of Schools of Public Affairs and
Administration)-accredited MPA (Master of
Public Administration) program, graduate
internship director, faculty steering committee member for the Clean Energy Supercluster
at Colorado State University, research associate for the Environmental Finance Center
at the University of Louisville, and deputy
director of the Center for Public Service at Texas Tech University (Lubbock). Her
research has appeared in a number of academic and professional outlets including
Economic Development Quarterly, Environmental Practice, International Review of
Public Administration, and ICMA InFocus, to name a few. She is also the co-editor
of Local Sustainable Urban Development in a Globalized World (Ashgate, 2008).
At Colorado State University, Dr. Opp teaches graduate seminars in Public Policy
Analysis and Scope and Methods of Political Science.
xvii
xviii ◾ About the Authors
Jeffery L. Osgood, Jr., PhD, has extensive
experience working with state and local
governments through a variety of positions
over the past 10 years. His areas of expertise include local economic development
and program evaluation. He has previously
worked at the Center for Local Governments
at Western Kentucky University (Bowling
Green), and currently serves as director of
the Center for Social & Economic Policy
Research at West Chester University of
Pennsylvania. In his time with the Center for
Local Governments, Dr. Osgood worked on
projects ranging from wage and benefit studies to pay classification analyses. Currently,
as director, Dr. Osgood has been involved with a number of studies ranging from
health needs analyses to program evaluations for both public and private organizations, as well as nonprofit foundations. He holds a doctorate in Urban and Public
Affairs and a master’s of public administration (MPA). As a faculty member at West
Chester University in the Public Administration Graduate Program, Dr. Osgood
teaches courses in Research Methods, Public Sector Organization Theory and
Behavior, and Foundations of Public Administration. His research has been published in the International Journal of Urban & Regional Research, Journal of Political
Science Education, Economic Development Quarterly, Public Personnel Management,
and Government & Opposition.
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