Diasporas and Foreign Direct Investment in China and India
This book offers a comparative and historical analysis of foreign direct
investment (FDI) liberalization in China and India and explains how the
return of these countries’ diasporas affects such liberalization. It examines diasporic investment from Western FDIs and finds that diasporas,
rather than Western nations, have fueled globalization in the two Asian
giants. In China, diasporas contributed the lion’s share of FDI inflows. In
India, returned diasporas were bridges for, and initiators of, Western
investment at home. Min Ye illustrates that diasporic entrepreneurs
helped to build China into the world’s manufacturing powerhouse and
that Indian diasporas facilitated their homeland’s success in software
services development.
Min Ye is an assistant professor of international relations and the
director of the East Asian Studies Program at Boston University. She
has served as a visiting scholar and professor in China, Japan, South
Korea, Singapore, and India and has given lectures at Fudan University,
Zhejiang University, and the Chinese University of Broadcasting and
Mass Media. Her publications include The Making of Northeast Asia
(with Kent Calder, 2010) and various articles published in such journals
as the Journal of East Asian Studies, Modern China Studies, and China
Public Affairs Quarterly. In China, Ye also serves as a consultant on
globalization for private and state-run companies and development of
special zones in various localities.
Diasporas and Foreign Direct Investment
in China and India
MIN YE
Boston University
32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N Y 10013-2473, U S A
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107054196
© Min Ye 2014
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2014
Printed in the United States of America
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Ye, Min, 1975–
Diasporas and foreign direct investment in China and India / Min Ye.
pages cm
ISBN 978-1-107-05419-6 (hardback)
1. Investments, Foreign – China. 2. Investments, Foreign – India. I. Title.
HG5782.Y425 2014
332.670 30951–dc23
2013048109
ISBN
978-1-107-05419-6 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
U R L s for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To my parents
Ye Jianxin and Xia Aiyu
for the lives they live and the life they gave me
Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Abbreviations
Preface
page ix
xi
xiii
part i. introduction and theory
1.
2.
Foreign Direct Investment in China and India
Diasporas and Social Network Theory
FDI and FDI Policies in China and India
Political Theories of FDI Liberalization
Chapter Outlines
3
4
7
12
18
Social Network Theory: Diasporas, Domestic Industry,
and the Diffusion of FDI Liberalization
SNT as a New Policy Framework
Social Networks and Diffusion of FDI Liberalization
External Networks and Domestic Resistance
Comparative Cases and Hypothesized Explanations
Empirical Materials
Conclusion
20
22
23
28
35
39
40
part ii. reform stage i
3.
Diaspora Entrepreneurs and Diffusion of FDI Liberalization
in China
The New Government and Policy Options
The Rise of Diaspora Networks in Post-Mao China
Special Economic Zones and the Initiation of FDI Liberalization
Open Coastal Cities Overcame Challenge to FDI Liberalization
Reasserting FDI Liberalization after the Tiananmen Crisis
Conclusion
45
48
51
55
60
64
67
vii
viii
Contents
4. Deregulation without Openness in India
India Started Reform in the 1980s
Indira Gandhi’s Business Networks and Deregulation
Rajiv Gandhi’s Diaspora Networks and Their Role in Liberalization
Rajiv’s Social Networks: Why FDI Liberalization Failed to Stay
Quiet Change in India’s Government–Business Relations
Conclusion
69
70
72
79
84
89
90
part iii. reform stage ii
5. Deepening Diffusion: “Zone Fever” and SOE Reform in China
Expanding Diaspora Networks
Diaspora Investment and “Zone Fever”
SOE Reform Deepened FDI Liberalization
Conclusion
6. Indian Indigenous Industry and FDI
Continual Divergence in FDI between China and India
Crisis, Reform, and Blowback in India
The Evolving New Social Basis of India’s FDI Liberalization
Conclusion
95
96
99
110
117
119
120
121
132
144
part iv. foreign direct investment in sectors
7. China’s Electronics and Automobiles
The Electronics Industry: From SEZs to High-Tech Clusters
The Auto Sector: From Protectionism to Industrial Policy
FDI in Other Sectors
Conclusion
149
152
161
174
175
8. FDI Liberalization in India’s Informatics and Autos
India’s Diaspora and Informatics
Indigenous Industry and Auto Sector Liberalization
Other Sectors: Continuity or Change
Conclusion
9. Conclusion: The State, Diasporas, and Development
History and Geography, Networks, and Policies
Regime, State Autonomy, and Embeddedness
FDI and Diaspora Investment: A Missing Distinction
Diaspora Differences and Consequences across China and India
Lessons and Trends
Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
177
177
191
203
204
205
206
210
212
213
216
218
219
239
Illustrations
maps
1
2
3
Domestic Distribution of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Inflows
in China (2011)
page xiv
India and Regional Concentration of Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) Inflows (2011)
xv
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Automobiles and Electronics in
China and India (2011)
150
figures
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
4.1
5.1
5.2
6.1
Foreign Direct Investment Inflows in Comparative Perspective ($Mi)
Occurrence and Nonoccurrence of Foreign Direct Investment
Liberalization
The Diffusion Model of Foreign Direct Investment
Liberalization: Stages and Steps
Industries and Foreign Direct Investment Liberalization
China’s Diaspora Networks and Foreign Direct Investment
Liberalization, 1978–1992
Shekou Industrial Export Zone, Guangdong, January 1979
Volatile External Sectors (Share of GDP %)
Sources of Major Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Projects in
Pudong, 1993
Diasporas’ Contributions to China’s Foreign Direct Investment
Continual Gap: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in China and
India ($Mi)
10
24
25
38
46
57
72
102
116
121
ix
List of Illustrations
x
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
8.1
8.2
Foreign Capital in India: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) versus
Portfolio Investment ($Mi)
Economic State in Reformist India: Worsening Accounts ($Mi)
Protectionism in India: Use of Antidumping Clause (1993–2001)
The Shares of Diaspora Investment in India (%)
Differential Performance of India’s Hardware and Software Exports
The Protection of Passenger Vehicles in India, 1993–2007
124
127
130
142
189
202
tables
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.1
7.2
7.3
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Ranking China and India’s Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Liberalization (of 141 countries)
Comparing Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in China and India
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Liberalization in China and
India (1980–2010)
Cross-Time Analysis of China and India’s Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) Liberalization
Sources of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the People’s
Republic of China (PRC), 1978–1993 Combined
China’s Developmental Policy Options in 1979
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the Shenzhen and Shekou
Zones in the Early Period (%)
Annual Growth Rates of Public and Private Companies in India,
1961–1996 (%)
Indira’s Pro-Business Deregulation
Rajiv Gandhi’s Economic Team and Diaspora Networks
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in China’s Regions by Source
(%, 1993)
Shanghai’s First Foreign Collaborations during Reform Era
[Shanghai diyi]
Major Foreign Investments in Kunshan (1992–1993)
India’s Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Liberalization, 1991–1994
Foreign Collaborations in India: Automobiles and Electronics
Shareholding Structure of Tata Group (%, 2007)
Infosys’s Revenues by Area
The Development History of the Electronics Industry in China
The Development History of China’s Auto Sector
China’s Auto Sector Joint Ventures in the 1990s
Policy Developments in India’s Informatics Sector
Indian Software Exports in Global Markets, 1999–2000
India’s Policy Frameworks in the Auto Sector
India’s Auto Manufacturers before Reform
India’s New Automakers in the 1990s
8
12
35
37
47
49
60
71
79
80
100
104
107
123
133
138
139
153
153
168
179
184
191
193
196
Abbreviations
ACMA
AIEI
AMC
ASSOCHAM
BJP
BOP
BPO
CASI
CCP
CII
CKD
CNAIC
CPE
DOE
EEPC
EHTP
EPZ
FAW
FDI
FERA
FICCI
FIF
GIC
GM
HCL
HK
HKSE
IFC
IMF
Automotive Component Manufacturers Association of India
Association of Indian Engineering Industry
American Motors Company
Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India
Bharatiya Janata Party
Balance of payments
Business process outsourcing
Center for Advanced Study of India
Chinese Communist Party
Confederation of Indian Industry
Completely knocked down
China National Automobile Industry Corporation
Comparative political economy
India’s Department of Electronics
Engineering Export Promotion Council
Electronics hardware technology parks
Export processing zones
China’s First Auto Works
Foreign direct investment
Foreign Exchange Regulations Act
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
Foreign-invested firm
General Insurance Corporation
General Motors
Hindustan Computers Ltd.
Hong Kong
Hong Kong Stock Exchange
International Finance Corporation
International Monetary Fund
xi
xii
IO
IPE
IPO
IT
JV
LIC
MEI
MNC
MOFTEC
MOU
MRTP
NASSCOM
NRI
OCC
PMO
PRC
QR
RSS
SEZ
SIAM
SJM
SKD
SNT
SOE
SSI
STP
TCS
UNCTAD
UNESCAP
WTO
List of Abbreviations
International organization
International political economy
Initial public offering
Information technology
Joint venture
Life Insurance Corporation
Ministry of the Electronics Industry
Multinational corporations
Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation
Memorandum of understanding
Monopolies/istic and Restrictive Trade Practices Act
National Association of Software and Services Companies
Nonresident Indian
Open coastal city
Prime Minister’s Office
People’s Republic of China
Qualitative restriction system
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
Special economic zone
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers
Swadeshi Jagran Manch
Semi–knocked down
Social network theory
State-owned enterprises
Small-scale industry
Software technology park
Tata Consultancy Services
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
United Nations Economic and Social Commission in Asia
and the Pacific
World Trade Organization
Preface
Confucius once said, “Fumu zai, bu yuanxing” [When parents are alive, do not
travel afar]. Generation after generation of Chinese, however, have gone to all
corners of the world to seek better lives. They left, but they kept strong emotional
and social ties to their homeland, and they returned to contribute to homeland
development. Indians also have emigrated to many places to better their livelihood.
In various historical junctures, those who left returned to play critical parts in
forging a modern India. The transformation of the economies of China and India
from socialism to capitalism, from isolationism to globalism, from backwaters of
the globe to the world’s engines of growth, has drawn on immigrant networks,
with the Chinese entrepreneurial diasporas returning to shape liberal foreign direct
investment (FDI) policies and Indian professional diasporas coming back to create
policies that have resulted in the enormous divergence in the two giants’ economic
transitions – one heavily reliant on FDI, the other domestic industry-centric.
Diasporas’ developmental impact is most effective when domestic politics is
open to their influence. When China initiated economic reform, the government
made remarkable efforts to build ties to the diaspora, provided incentives for their
return, and availed opportunity for their success in their homeland. India’s reformist leaders likewise placed diaspora professionals at key positions of apex economic
agencies. Diasporas are most developmental if they possess advanced ideas, technology, and resources. The Chinese diaspora entrepreneurs occupied key manufacturing niches in the global market. When they circulated investment home, they
made China a “world factory.” Many Indian immigrants worked at Western
multinational corporations (MNCs), connected their homeland with global funds
and technology, and supported the global success of indigenous Indian firms. In
short, diasporas are not miracle workers, but they are critical to economic miracles
in the historic renaissances of the two Asian giants and ancient civilizations.
This book began as my dissertation project at Princeton University.
Professors Lynn White, Atul Kohli, Kent Calder, and Thomas Christensen
xiii
Preface
xiv
Kazakhstan
Heilongjiang
Mongolia
Nei Mongol
Kyrgyzstan
Xinjiang
Gansu
Tajikistan
Ningxia
Qinghai
Pakistan
Shanxi
Jilin
Liaoning
Beijing
DalianNorth Korea
Tranjin
Hebei
Shaanxi
Henan
Shandong
South Korea
Japan
Jiangsu
Anhui Suzhou
Hubei Wuhan
Kunshan
Sichuan Chongqing
ZhejiangWenzhou
Hunan Jiangxi
Bhutan
2011 FDI (100 mil USD)
Guizhou
Fujian
Data Not Included
Xiamen
Yunnan
1–1200
Bangladesh
GuangxiGuangdong Taiwan
Macau
1201–1700
Hong KongShenzhen
1701–4500
Myanmar
4501–5800
Laos
Hainan
Xizang (Tibet)
Nepal
India
map 1. Domestic Distribution of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Inflows in China (2011)
Note: China has twenty-seven provinces and four provincial-level municipalities.
Foreign direct investment has concentrated in the coastal areas, marked in the dark
shade, making this region the export hub of the nation. These are places that had
substantial out-migration before reform and maintained strong ties to diaspora
communities overseas, particularly in Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia.
have provided unending guidance, support, and encouragement at Princeton
and beyond. Friends I made at Princeton continue to lift my spirits and offer
companionship in the United States and in Asia. They are Ian Chong, Chunmei
Du, Todd Hall, Scott Kastner, Ning Ma, Lanjun Xu, and Enhua Zhang. Most of
the research and writing were done in Boston. Thanks to Boston University’s
leave policies, my colleagues, and the Princeton-Harvard China and the World
Program fellowship, I was able to complete the research, write the book, and
raise a new family. At Harvard’s Fung Library, Nancy Hearst helped with
collecting key archives and statistics used in the book.
Outside the United States, I drew on expertise and collections in China,
India, Hong Kong, and Singapore while serving as a visiting scholar at the
Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), the Chinese Academy of Social
Sciences, the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations
(ICRIER), and the National University of Singapore. Ms. Jean Hung at CUHK
availed me of the Universities Service Center’s rich collection on China’s
economic reform. In India, I am indebted to two nameless women librarians
at ICRIER and the Jawaharlal Nehru University library who compiled archives
on Indian reform.
Preface
xv
China
Afghanistan
Jammu & Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
Punjab
Pakistan
Chandigarh
Haryana
Gurgaon
Delhi
Arunachal Pradesh
Nepal
Sikkim Bhutan
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat
Assam
Nagaland
Meghalaya
Bihar
Bangladesh Manipur
Tripura
West Bengal
Mizoram
Kolkata
Myanmar
Orissa
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Mumbai (Bombay)
Maharashtra
Thailand
Hyderabad
Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Bangalore Chennai
2011 FDI US $ (million)
Data Not Included
10–300
301–6000
6001–9001
9000–55000 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Pondicherry
Tamil Nadu
Kerala
Lakshadweep
Sri Lanka
map 2. India and Regional Concentration of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Inflows
(2011)
Note: India has twenty-eight states and seven union territories. Its private economy is
most vibrant in South India. Since the 1990s, FDI inflows in India have concentrated in
areas with strong indigenous capital such as Mumbai, Bangalore, New Delhi, Chennai,
Hyderabad, and the state of Gujarat. Diaspora networks seem to facilitate FDI inflows in
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, but not in West Bengal or Kerala.
Over the long years, the project has benefited from advice offered by
Thomas Berger, Susan Eckstein, Joseph Fewsmith, Kevin Gallagher, and
Williams Grimes at Boston University (BU); Iain Johnston, Tarun Khanna,
William Kirby, and Liz Perry at Harvard; and Yongnian Zheng at the
National University of Singapore and Devesh Kapur at the University of
Pennsylvania.
xvi
Preface
At Cambridge University Press, I am thankful for senior editor Lew
Bateman’s interest in acquiring the manuscript and supervision of the review
process. I also deeply appreciate Shaun Vigil for guidance throughout the
production and the two anonymous reviewers of the manuscript for their comments to improve the book. My research assistants at BU, Sarah Chung, Joshua
Lacey, and Damin Zhu, have helped with maps, figures, and statistics used in the
book. Best wishes for their careers after BU.
A book project, in the midst of a ticking tenure clock, can be stressful, yet the
births of my two daughters, Claire and Sophia (who inevitably delayed the
project’s completion), somehow made the long process a hopeful and enjoyable
journey filled with laughter. My husband Yunrong Chai, a microbiologist, has
played a central part in balancing my career and family life. An academic
profession ultimately requires persistence and deep commitment, for which I
am grateful to my parents who endured the havoc under Mao’s rule, experienced
dramatic change during reform, and still carry on with unyielding morality,
discipline, gratitude, and a strong sense to serve their family and community. To
them, I dedicate this book.
part i
INTRODUCTION AND THEORY
- Xem thêm -