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M IN IS T R Y O F E D U C A T IO N A N D T R A IN IN G H A N O I U N IV E R S I T Y PHAM PHUON G OANH TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING READING STRATEGIES AND THEIR CLASSROOM PRACTICES: A CASE STUDY AT ACADEMY OF FINANCE THI' DAI-IOC HA NỘ1 HANOI JNlVER& irV LIBRARY 69Sdi J SUBM ITED IN PA R TIA L FULFILM ENT OR REQ U IREM EN T OF THE DEGREE O F M ASTER IN TESOL H anoi April, 2012 TA B LE O F CO N TEN TS TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEGEMENT....................................................................................................................................iii ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................................................iv STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP.....................................................................................................................v LIST OF ABBREVIATION...............................................................................................................................vi LIST OF TABLE...............................................................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................................... viii C H A P T E R 1: IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................1 1.1. Background to the study...................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Aims of the stu d y..................................................................................................................................2 1.3. Significance and the scope of the study............................................................................................ 2 1.4. Organization of the thesis....................................................................................................................3 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................................5 2.1. Reading and reading strategies.......................................................................................................... 5 2.2. Teaching reading strategies in classroom.......................................................................................24 2.3. Beliefs and teacher's beliefs.............................................................................................................26 2.4. Teacher's beliefs and classroom practices......................................................................................30 CHAPTER 3: M ETHODOLOGY................................................................................................................... 34 3.1. Research questions.............................................................................................................................34 3.2. Design of the study: A case stu d y....................................................................................................34 3.3. Data collection instruments.............................................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................... 47 4.1. Teachers' beliefs:................................................................................................................................47 4.2 Teachers' actual classroom practices and their consistence with the teachers' beliefs......... 57 CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION.................................................................................... 69 5.1. Implications..........................................................................................................................................69 5.2. Limitations of the study and directions for future research........................................................70 5.3. Conclusion...................................................................................................................................... 71 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................ 73 APPENDIX 1: PRE- LESSON INTERVIEW QUESTIONS............................................................................ 81 APPENDIX 2: SAMPLE OF AN INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT......................................................................... 82 APPENDIX 3: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION SC H EM E..............................................................................86 APPENDIX 4: POST- LESSON INTERVIEW TIM ETA BLE............................................................................89 APPENDIX 5: A SAMPLE OF A POST- LESSON INTERVIEW .................................................................... 90 APPENDIX 7: C A LLA .....................................................................................................................................91 ¡i ACKNOW LEGEM ENT I w o u ld lik e to e x p re s s m y m o s t sin c e re a p p re c ia tio n to m y s u p e rv iso r N g u y e n T h i N h u H oa, M A . fo r h e r e n c o u ra g e m e n t an d g u id a n c e th ro u g h o u t th e re se a rc h . W ith o u t h er w e ll- d e sig n e d p lan an d m e tic u lo u s re v ie w o f th e d raft, th is stu d y w o u ld h av e b een im p o ssib le. 1 also w ish to th a n k th e a d m in is tra to rs o f P o st- g ra d u a te D ep artm en t o f H a n o i U n iv e rsity for g iv in g m e th e b est a s s is ta n c e to fu lfill m y th esis. M y d e e p a p p re c ia tio n a lso g o e s to th e te a c h e rs a n d stu d en ts at A O F w h o h a v e h e lp e d m e c o lle c t d a ta fo r th is stu d y . F in ally . 1 am d e e p ly in d e b te d to all th e su p p o rt an d e n c o u ra g e m e n t th a t m y fa m ily h a s so lo v in g ly o ffe re d m e. ABSTRACT D ra w in g o n th eo rie s o f th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n te a c h e rs ' b eliefs an d te a c h in g p ractices, th is stu d y in v estig ates th e b e lie fs a b o u t te a c h in g read in g strateg ie s o f te a c h e rs at A c a d e m y o f F inance, th e ir te a c h in g p ra c tic e s in classro o m s and the c o rrelatio n betw een th e b e lie fs and th e teac h in g p ra ctices. T h e s tu d y w as guided by th e fo llo w in g research q u e stio n s: W hat are te a c h e r's b e lie fs a b o u t te a c h in g re a d in g strateg ie s? H ow are te a c h e rs ' beliefs a b o u t te a c h in g re a d in g s tra te g ie s re flected in th e ir te a c h in g p ra ctices? T h e p a rtic ip a n ts o f th e stu d y w e re tw o te a c h e rs from th e E n g lish D e p artm en t at A O F . T h e d ata for th e stu d y w as co lle c te d u sin g s e m i- structured in te rv ie w s w h ich is d elivered to th e p artic ip a n ts b efo re an d a fte r th e le sso n s to elicit the th e ir b eliefs a b o u t teac h in g re a d in g strateg ies an d c larify so m e q u e s tio n s o cc u rre d in the o b se rv a tio n process; c la ssro o m o b serv atio n to see h o w th e te a c h in g w a s ac tu ally carried o u t in th e classro o m s. T h e re su lts revealed th at te a c h e rs ' b e lie fs a b o u t re ad in g strateg ie s an d teac h in g re ad in g in c la s s ro o m s w ere co n sisten t w ith th e ir a c tu a l te a c h in g p ractices. H o w e v er, in term s o f s p e c ific strateg ies for teac h in g re ad in g , th e fin d in g s indicated th a t o n ly the b eliefs o f te a c h e rs a b o u t te a c h in g m e ta c o g n itiv e stra te g ie s w ere co n sisten t w ith th e use o f these s tra te g ie s in th e classro o m s, w h e reas, th e ir b e lie fs a b o u t te a c h in g c o g n itiv e an d social s tra te g ie s to stu d en ts w ere n o t th e sa m e w ith w h a t th ey a c tu a lly had e m p lo y e d in the c la s s ro o m s . T he re aso n s e x p la in e d fo r th is in c o n siste n c e lied at th e te a c h in g m ateria ls, th e s h o rta g e o f tim e , ex a m in a tio n p re ssu re a n d m ix e d -level classro o m s. ST A T E M E N T O F A U T H O R SH IP I c e rtify th a t this M .A th e sis is m y o w n w o rk , o th erw ise fu lly a c k n o w le d g e m e n t. S ig n atu re P h atn P h u o n s O a n h V LIST O F ABBREVIATION A O F : A c a d e m y o f F in an ce C A L L A : L e a rn in g S tra te g ie s T a u g h t in th e C o g n itiv e A c ad em ic L an g u ag e L earning A p p ro ach C L T : C o m m u n ic a tiv e la n g u a g e te a c h in g E F L : E n g lish a s a fo re ig n lan g u ag e E S L : E n g lish a s a sec o n d lan g u ag e M A : M a s te r o f art S L : S e c o n d lan g u ag e S L A : S eco n d la n g u a g e ac q u isitio n . L IS T O F T A B L E T a b le 2.1. [.earn in g s tra te g ie s d e fin itio n and c la ssific a tio n (O 'M a lle y & C h a m o t. 1990: 119) T a b le 3.1. Post- lesson in terv iew tim e ta b le T a b le 4.1. T he use o f m e ta c o g n itiv e strateg ies in classro o m s b y te a c h e r A an d te a c h e r B T a b le 4.2. T he use o f c o g n itiv e strateg ie s in cla ssro o m s by te a c h e r A an d te a c h e r B T a b le 4.3. T he use o f so c ia l s tra te g ie s in classro o m s b y te a c h e r A an d te a c h e r B vn LIST O F FIGURES F ig u r e 2 .1 . B o tto m - u p m o d el. F ig u r e 2.2. S c h e m a tiz a tio n o f th e to p - d o w n ap p ro ach CHAPTER 1 IN T R O D U C T IO N 1.1. B ack g ro u n d to th e study R ead in g is one o f fo u r sk ills th o u g h t to be a c q u ired in learn in g p ro c ess in o rd e r to m aster th e language. A c c o rd in g to K ra sh e n 's theory o f th e N a tu ral A p p ro ach , " re a d in g m ay c o n trib u te sig n ifican tly to c o m p ete n ce in a seco n d language. T h e re is a g o o d re aso n : in fact, to h y p o th esize th at read in g m ak es c o n trib u tio n to o v erall c o m p ete n ce, to all four s k ills". O th er sk ills are co n sid ered th e re flectio n o f w h at w e ac h ie v e from read in g a c tiv ities. In a d d itio n , re searc h into re ad in g has found th at effec tiv e re a d e rs are a w a re o f the s tra te g ie s th ey use an d th at th e y use strateg ie s flex ib ly and effectiv ely (G a m e r, 1987; P resley , B eard EL, D in ary & B row n. 1992). R esearch ers b e lie v e th at th ese strateg ie s can b e ta u g h t to lan g u ag e learn ers so th at th e y ca n b e c o m e m o re su cc essfu l an d effec tiv e re ad ers, w h o are ab le to co p e w ith re ad in g task s in learning p ro c ess o r in reality . B esides, it is said that te a c h in g re ad in g strateg ie s also m a k e s stu d e n ts b ec o m e a u to n o m o u s learn ers. A s a re su lt, te a c h in g re ad in g strateg ie s is o n e o f th e m o st im p o rtan t d u tie s o f the lan g u ag e teachers. It is a fact th at a t A c a d e m y o f F in an ce (A O F ). re a d in g is c o n sid ered o n e o f the k ey skills to h e lp stu d en ts en la rg e th e ir k n o w led g e o f ec o n o m ic s. H o w ev er, in re a lity , n o n E n g lish m a jo re d stu d en ts get lo w sc o re s in re ad in g tests in c o m p ariso n w ith o th e r sk ills an d a n u m b e r o f stu d en ts ad m itte d th at th ey felt p u zz le d w h en d o in g re ad in g co m p re h en sio n q u e stio n s b ecau se th e y d o n o t know h o w to deal w ith it. In ad d itio n , it is sh o w n in so m e re searc h es into te a c h e rs ' b eliefs th a t te a c h e rs ' beliefs h av e g re a t in flu en ces o n th e ir p e rfo rm an c e in th e classro o m . A c c o rd in g to S h av elso n & S ta m (1 9 8 1 ). w h a t te a c h e rs d o in classro o m is g o v e rn e d by w h a t th e y b e lie v e and these b e lie fs o ften serv e a s a filte r th ro u g h w h ich in stru ctio n al ju d g m e n ts and d e c isio n s are I m a d e . F u rth erm o re . B org (1 9 9 8 , 2003). S h av elso n & S tern (1 9 8 1 ) also in d ic a te a fact that te a c h e rs p o sses a vast a rra y o f co m p lex b e lie fs a b o u t p ed a g o g ical issues in clu d in g b e lie fs a b o u t s tu d e n ts ' learn in g an d classro o m p ra c tic e s and th e se b e lie fs ca n be in terp re ted into d iffe re n t im p lem en tatio n in classro o m , th u s " a tte n tio n to te a c h e r's b e lie fs ca n inform e d u c a tio n a l p ractices in th e w a y s th a t p re v ailin g research has not a n d e sse n tia l to im p ro v in g th eir p ro fessio n al p re p ara tio n an d te a c h in g p ractice ( P ajares. 1992)” . A t A O F w here fo reig n lan g u ag e te a c h e rs are o f g e n e ratio n s w ith d iffe re n t ages, b a c k g ro u n d ed u c atio n th e te a c h e rs ' b eliefs a b o u t teac h in g fo reig n lan g u ag e s are very c o m p lic a te d . In fact, th e re h av e n o t b een an y stu d ies o n te a c h e rs ' b e lie fs a b o u t teach in g fo reig n lan g u ag e in g e n e ra l an d re ad in g stra te g ie s in p artic u la r a t A O F . F o r all o f th ese re a so n s , it w ould be n ec e ssa ry to h av e an in v estig atio n into te a c h e rs ' b eliefs a b o u t te a c h in g read in g strateg ie s an d th eir c la ssro o m p ractice a t A O F to p ro v id e E nglish re a d in g te a c h e r an in- d e p th u n d e rsta n d in g a b o u t re a d in g strateg ie s to m a k e d e c isio n s on th e ir te a c h in g lessons. 1.2. A im s o f th e stu d y T h e m ain aim o f th is re searc h is to find o u t w h e th e r th e te a c h e r's b eliefs ab o u t read in g stra te g ie s and h is/ h er in terp re tatio n into c la ssro o m are co n siste n t o r n o t. S p e c ific a lly , the a u th o r e x p e c ts to find th e a n sw e rs to th e fo llo w in g questions: W hat are teacher's beliefs about teaching reading strategies? How are teachers' beliefs about teaching reading strategies reflected in their teaching practices? T h e re se a rc h e r h o p e s th a t th e finding o f th e stu d y w ill p a rtly p ro v id e th e co n c ern e d re se a rc h a n in-depth u n d e rsta n d in g a b o u t te a c h in g and te a c h in g p ra ctice a t A O F . 1.3. Significance a n d th e scope o f th e study. 2 T h e s tu d y w ill p ro v id e in sig h ts into both w h a t te a c h e rs b eliev ed and w h a t th e y ac tu ally d id in th e c la ssro o m a t A O F . fro m w hich th e te a c h e r can be a w are o f th e ir teach in g p ra c tic e s in the c la s sro o m s . "W h en teac h ers b e c o m e m o re a w are o f how th ey te a c h and h o w th e ir s tu d e n ts learn , th e n th e w h o le ed u c a tio n a l pro cess b ec o m e s m o re en jo y a b le and m e a n in g fu l for th e s ta k e h o ld e rs: te a c h e r and student'" (M iller. 2004.) T h e s tu d y is a ls o h o p e d to o ffe r th e th eo retical b asis fo r th e ap p lic a tio n o f read in g te c h n iq u e s in th e c la ss ro o m s. H o w e v e r th is s tu d y is a c a se stu d y , th e ir fin d in g s c o u ld n o t be g en e ralize d to all o th er c a se s in d iffe re n t se ttin g s an d c o n te x ts . T h e re su lt o f th e study, th ere fo re , sh o u ld ju s t be u sed as a re fe re n c e to o th e r stu d ie s in the future. 1.4. O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e th esis T h e th e sis c o n sists o f fiv e c h a p te rs. Chapter 1, introduction, p re se n ts th e b ac k g ro u n d to th e stu d y , s ta te s th e a im s o f th e stu d y an d lists th e research q u e stio n s th a t in ten d ed to g u id e th e in v e stig a tio n . T h e s ig n ific a n c e o f th e stu d y is also d iscu ssed . Chapter 2, literature review, p ro v id e s th e th e o re tic a l b asis w h ic h u n d e rp in s th e stu d y . T h is ch ap ter c o n ta in s th ree se c tio n s: R e a d in g in term s o f d efin itio n , m o d els o f re ad in g process, re a d in g stra te g ie s in c lu d in g le a rn in g stra te g ie s an d read in g strateg ie s, te a c h e rs’ beliefs and te a c h in g p ra c tic e s. C hapter 3, m ethodology , fo c u ses on th e m eth o d s used to g ath er an d a n a ly z e d a ta . F irst, re se a rc h q u e s tio n s are ad d ressed . T h en , in stru m e n ts fo r data c o lle c tio n , s u b je c ts an d p ro c e d u re s a re d e sc rib e d . T h e c h a p te r e n d s w'ith a n a ly z in g data. Chapter 4, fin d in g s an d discussion, re p o rts th e resu lts o f th e stated b e lie fs about te a c h in g re a d in g s tra te g ie s o f tw o E nglish te a c h e rs, the actu al e m p lo y m e n t o f these stra te g ie s in re a d in g c la s s ro o m s , th e c o n siste n c y an d d iscre p an cy b etw een te a c h e rs ’ b eliefs an d th e ir te a c h in g p ra c tic e s re g a rd in g te a c h in g re a d in g strateg ie s. Chapter 5, im plications a n d conclusion, p ro v id e s im p lica tio n s for te a c h in g re ad in g stra te g ie s for 3 n o n - E n g lish m a jo re d s tu d e n ts at A O F , re c o m m e n d s d ire c tio n s for fu tu re research and m a k e s a final c o n c lu sio n . 4 CH APTER 2 L IT E R A T U R E REV IE W 2.1. R ead in g a n d re a d in g strategies. 2 .1 .1 . W h a t is read in g? A tte m p ts to d e fin e re ad in g h av e been n u m e ro u s. T h is is p artly b ec au se o f th e c o m p le x ity o f th e re ad in g act. A c c o rd in g to H a m m e r (1 9 8 9 . p: 153), re a d in g is a m ech a n ical p ro c ess th a t “ey e s re c c iv e th e m e s s a g e an d th e b ra in th e n has to w o rk o u t th e sig n ifican c e o f th e m e ssa g e ” . H a m m e r n o t o n ly fo c u s o n th e tw o ac tio n s d o m in a te d by th e ey e s and th e b ra in b u t also th e speed o f th e p ro c ess " a re a d in g te x t m o v es at a sp ee d o f th e re ad er” , w h ich m ean s th a t th e re a d e r w h o d ec id e s h o w fast he w an ts to read th e text. S h a rin g th e sam e o p in io n . S m ith (1 9 8 5 . p: 102) d efin e d " re a d in g is u n d e rsta n d in g th e a u th o r 's th o u g h t” . H e also ad d ed . “ U n d e rsta n d in g p rin t o r ev en re c e iv in g c o m m u n ic a tio n c a n h a rd ly be said to e x p la in re ad in g . It m e a n s th a t w e - th e re ad er- read th e a u th o r 's m in d n o t th e a u th o r's w o rd s", so th e n atu re o f re ad in g , ac c o rd in g to S m ith , is th e in tera ctio n b e tw e e n re a d e rs an d th e authors. O b v io u s ly , th ese a b o v e d e fin itio n s fail to th e w a y s th at h e lp re a d e r u n d e rsta n d th e m e ssa g e s in th e tex t. T he d efin itio n g iv en b y W illiam (1 9 9 0 . p: 2), w h ich say s th at “re a d in g is a p ro c ess w h e re b y o n e loo k a t an d u n d ersta n d s w h a t has b een w ritte n " also e n c o u n te rs th is sh o rtco m in g s. T h e d e fin itio n th a t see m s to b e m o re sa tisfy in g th a n th o se m e n tio n e d a b o v e is th e o n e in tro d u ce d by U r (1 9 9 6 ). T h e p ro c ess o f re ad in g , ac c o rd in g to U r, is d e fin e d as “c o n s tru c tin g m ean in g fro m w ritten te x ts ” (1 9 9 6 , p: 1 4 1 ).A ly o u sef (2 0 0 5 ) also asse rted re a d in g as "an in tera ctiv e p ro c ess b e tw e e n re a d e rs and th e te x ts w h ich lead s to th e a u to m a tic ity (o r re ad in g flu e n c y )” . In th is d efin itio n . A ly o u sel e n tailed th ree e le m e n ts th e 5 re a d e r, th e text and th e in teractio n b etw e en th e te x t and the re a d e r an d e m p h asiz ed the ro le o f p ercep tio n in re a d in g p ro c e ss and th e activ e role o f th e re a d e rs p a rtic ip a tin g to the c o n s tru c tio n o f m ean in g . “ In th is p ro cess, th e re a d e r in teracts d y n a m ic a lly w ith the lin g u istic s o r sy stem k n o w led g e as w ell w as sch e m a tic k n o w led g e” . S h a rin g th e sam e p o in t o f view on re ad in g , A e b erso ld an d F ield (1 9 9 7 . p: 15) stated: Reading is what happens when people look at a text and assign m eanings to the written symbols in that text. T he text and the reader are the two physical entities necessary for the reading process to start. It is, however, the interaction between the text and the reader that constitutes actual meaning. S in c e re ad in g is a co m p le x p ro cess, G ra b e a rg u es th at “ m an y re se a rc h e rs attem p t to u n d e rsta n d and e x p la in th e flu en t re ad in g p ro c ess by a n a ly z in g p ro c ess into a set o f c o m p o n e n t sk ills" (1 9 9 1 , p. 3 7 9 ) .T h is ideas are th e sam e w ith H a m m a d o u (1991 ) w hen sta te d th a t research has d em o n stra te d th a t re ad in g co m p re h e n sio n is n o t ju s t u n d e rsta n d in g w o rd s, sen ten c es, o r te x ts, b u t in v o lv in g a c o m p le x in teg ra tio n o f th e re a d e r 's p rio r k n o w led g e , lan g u ag e p ro fic ie n cy an d th e ir m e ta c o g n itiv e strateg ies (F lam m ad o u , 1991). It ca n be in ferred fro m th is p o in t o f v ie w is re a d e rs also use so m e m e n ta l ac tiv itie s th a t are o ften referred to as re ad in g strateg ies to c o n s tru c t m ean in g from th e tex t. In ad d itio n , re a d e rs b a se o n th e ir p re v io u s k n o w led g e th a t th e y b rin g m ean in g fro m th e tex t to a ssist th e ir re ad in g co m p re h e n sio n . T h is p rio r k n o w le d g e is k n o w n as the sch e m a . R esearch in re a d in g h a s sh o w n th a t sch e m a p lay s an im p o rtan t ro le in help in g th e re a d e r to co m p re h en d a text. T h e a b o v e m en tio n ed v ie w s o n re ad in g are o n ly g en eral o n es. In o rd e r to u n derstand m o re a b o u t the n a tu re o f re ad in g , it is n ec e ssa ry to ta k e a c lo ser lo o k at th e actu al p ro cess th a t re a lly tak es p lace in th e re a d e r's m in d s. So far. sev eral sec tio n sev e ral m o d els have b een p ro p o se d to d e sc rib e th is p ro cess. T h e n ex t sec tio n is g o in g to p re se n t th ese m odels o f re a d in g and d iscu ss th e ir stre n g th s an d w eak n esses. 2.1.2. M o d e ls o f r e a d in g p rocess 2.1.2.1. Bottom- up 6 T h e b o tto m -u p m odel is a tex t-d riv en m odel w h ich v iew s re a d in g as a o n e -w a y flow o f in fo rm atio n (C h e rn , 1994) and d e sc rib e s in fo rm atio n p ro c essin g as a se rie s o f discrete s ta g e s (S tan o v ich , 1980). T he re ad ers m u st in fer m ean in g , d ec id e w h a t to retain and not to re ta in , and m o v e on (B ro w n . 2001 ). T h e cen tral notion b eh in d th e b o tto m -u p ap p ro a c h is th a t read in g is b a sic a lly a m a tte r o f d e c o d in g a serie s o f w ritten sy m b o ls into th e ir aural e q u iv ale n ts (N u n a n . 1991, p. 64). A c c o rd in g to th is theory’, in o th e r w o rd , th e re a d e r b eg in s w ith th e w ritten te x t (th e b o tto m ) and co n stru c ts m ean in g from th e letters, w o rd s, p h ra ses an d se n te n c e s found w ith in an d then p ro c e sse s the te x t in a lin ear fashion. T h e co m in g d a ta fro m th e tex t m u st be receiv ed before th e h ig h - level m en tal stag es o f u n d e rsta n d in g tran sfo rm an d recode th e d a ta . F o llo w in g a n in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssin g a p p ro ach to co m p re h e n sio n , b o tto m - up m o d e ls an aly zed re a d in g as a p ro c ess in w h ich ‘‘sm all c h u n k s o f te x t are ab so rb ed , a n a ly z e d , and g ra d u a lly ad ded to th e n ex t ch u n k , until they b e c o m e m ean in g fu l” (B arn et, 1989, p: 13). T h is b o tto m -u p pro cess o f co n stru c tin g th e m e a n in g o f th e te x t from the sm a lle st units w ill b ec o m e so a u to m a tic th a t re a d e rs are n o t c o n sc io u s o f its o p eratio n (A e b e rso ld & F ield, 1997; E sk ey , 1988). M E A N IN Q (deep L ev e l III / / / Level D itro c tu rc) W ORDS (le x ic a l lev el) / A L E T T E R /S O U N D S ( c h a r a c te r lev el) Level I Figur;* 1 Data-D riven o r B o tto m U p M o d e l F ig u re 3.1 B ottom - u p m odel (S o u rc e: B o b ro w an d N o rm a n . 1975) 7 G o u g h (1 9 7 2 ) w h o su p p o rte d th is re ad in g m o d el e x p la in e d th e seq u e n ce o f th e reading s y ste m form a b o tto m - u p p ersp ectiv e as fo llo w (se e fig u re 1.1.): F irst, the graphem ic in fo rm atio n en ters th ro u g h th e visual system an d is tran sfo rm ed at th e first level from a le tte r c h a ra c te r to a so u n d , th at is from a g ra p h em ic re p resen ta tio n to a p h o n em ic re p resen ta tio n . S eco n d , th e p h o n em ic re p resen ta tio n is co n v erted : a t lev el tw o, into a w o rd . T h e m ean in g u n its o r w o rd s then p a ss o n to the third level an d m e an in g is a ssim ila te d into the k n o w le d g e system . It c a n be seen th at, in b o tto m - up p ro cessin g , re a d e rs are p a ssiv e d e c o d e rs o f essen tial g ra p h ic - p h o n em ic- sy n ta c tic - sem an tic sy stem (A ld e rso n , 2000). T h erefo re, the so p h istic a te d linguistic k n o w led g e o f the re a d e r is essential. A lth o u g h bottom - up m o d el w a s c o n sid ered as '‘th e b est w ay to teach re a c h in g " (B ro w n , 2 0 0 1 ), it w as claim ed to be “d iffic u lt to c o u n t fo r se n te n c e - c o n te x t e ffe c ts and ro le o f p rio r k n o w led g e o f te x t to p ic as fa cilitatin g v aria b les in w o rd re co g n itio n and c o m p re h e n s io n " (S am u el & K am ial, 1988. p: 3 ) E sk ey e t al. (1 9 7 3 ) a lso claim ed th at the d e c o d in g m odel w a s in ad eq u a te b ecau se it "u n d e rste stim a te d th e c o n trib u tio n o f the re a d e r”, an d it fa ile d to re co g n ize th a t s tu d e n t's ex p e c ta tio n ab o u t th e te x t w e re b ased on th e ir k n o w led g e o f la n g u a g e and h o w it w o rk s (C ited in C arrell & E sd ey , 1988, p. 3). D ue to th e d efic ien cy o f b o tto m -u p m o d el, W id d o w so n (1 9 7 8 , 1983) b egan to view sec o n d lan g u ag e re ad in g as an ac tiv e p ro c ess in w h ich th e re a d e r is an a c tiv e in fo rm atio n p ro c e s s o r w h o p re d ic ts w h ile sa m p lin g o n ly p a rts o f th e actual text. 2.1.2.2. Top- down model In th e read in g p ro cess, to p -d o w n m o d el a rg u e s th a t re ad ers b rin g a g re at d eal o f k n o w le d g e , ex p e ctatio n , assu m p tio n s, and q u estio n s to the te x t an d th e y c o n tin u e to read a s lo n g a s the te x t c o n firm s th e ir ex p e c ta tio n (G o o d m a n , 1967). A e b e rso ld and Field fu rth e r e x p la in th at th e to p -d o w n th eo ry as “ re a d e rs fit into k n o w led g e (c u ltu ral, sy n ta c tic , linguistic, h isto ric a l) th ey alre a d y p o ssess, then c h e c k b ack w h e n new o r 8 u n e x p e c te d in fo rm atio n a p p e a rs" (1 9 9 7 . p. 18) in stead o f by g o in g from letter to letter an d fro m w ord to w o rd (C h e m . 1994: H u d so n . 1982: U rq u h a rt & W eir. 1998). R e a d e r's p rio r e x p e rie n c e o r b ac k g ro u n d k n o w le d g e th e y b rin g to th e tex t, w h ich is k n o w n as s c h e m a tic k n o w led g e , also plays a sig n ific a n t role in th e re ad in g p ro c ess (A e b e rso ld & F ield . 1997. p. 16). In th is v iew , n o t o n ly is th e re a d e r's p rio r lin g u istic k n o w le d g e (" lin g u is tic sch em ata) and level o f p ro fic ie n cy in th e second la n g u a g e are im p o rtan t, b u t the r e a d e r 's p rio r b ac k g ro u n d k n o w le d g e o f the c o n te n t area o f th e te x t (c o n te n t s c h e m a ta ) as w ell as o f the rh e to ric al stru ctu re o f th e tex t (fo rm a l sc h e m a ta ) are also im p o rta n t (C arrell & E sd ey . 1988. p. 2), fo r th ey p ro v id e the re a d e rs w ith a b a sis fo r c o m p a riso n , thus fo r m ak in g p re d ictio n . T o p -d o w n p ro cess “ m o v es from th e to p . th e h ig h e r-le v e l m ental stag es, d o w n to th e tex t i t s e l f ' (B arn et. 1989. p. 13), so re a d in g is a “p sy ch o lin g u istic g u e ssin g g a m e ," in w h ic h re a d e rs d id not d ep e n d m u ch o n a c c u ra te re co g n itio n o f the p rin t b u t on th e ir k n o w le d g e o f sy n ta x and se m a n tic s (G o o d m a n . 1967) C a m b o u m e (1979, p: 41 ) p ro v id es th e follow in g sch e m a tiz atio n o f th e a p p ro ach . F ig u re 1.2: S ch em a tiz a tio n o f th e to p - d o w n a p p ro a ch F ro m th e d iag ra m , it can be seen th a t th is ap p ro a c h em p h asiz ed th e re c o n stru c tio n o f th e m e a n in g ra th e r th an th e d e c o d in g o f form . T he in teractio n o f th e re a d e r an d the te x t is c e n tra l to the p ro cess, and th e re a d e r b rin g s to th is in teractio n h is k n o w le d g e o f th e su b ject a t hand, k n o w le d g e o f e x p e c ta tio n s about h o w lan g u ag e w o rk s, m o tiv a tio n , in terest a n d a ttitu d e s to w ard s th e c o n te n t o f th e tex t. R ath er th a n d e c o d in g ea ch sy m b o l, o r e v e n e v e ry w ord, th e re a d e r used his g en eral k n o w led g e o f th e w o rd o r p a rtic u la r te x t 9 c o m p o n e n ts to m ak e in tellig en t g u essed a b o u t w h at m ig h t co m e n e x t in th e tex t, o r form s h y p o th e s is a b o u t te x t e lem e n ts and th en th e re a d e r sam p les o n ly e n o u g h o f th e tex t to c o n firm o r reject h is/ h er g u ess, to d eterm in e w h e th e r o r n o t th e h y p o th e sis are correct. T h u s , th e re ad er p lay s an ac tiv e role and su p p liers m o re in fo rm atio n to c o n stru c t m ean in g th a n th e p rin ted p a g e s does. J u s t lik e th e b o tto m - u p m odel, to p - d o w n m odel d o es have so m e lim itatio n s. T h is m odel, a s sta te d b y E skey (1 9 8 8 , p: 93) ‘le n d s to em phasize such higher- level skills as the prediction o f m eaning by m eans o f context clues or certain kinds o f background knowledge at the expense o f such lower skills as the rapid and accurate identification o f lexical and gram m atical form. That is. in making the perfectly valid point that fluent reading is prim arily a cognitive process, they tend to deem phasize the perceptual and decoding dim ension o f that process". A n o th e r d ra w b a c k o f to p - d o w n ap p ro ach is th a t th e re ad er d o e s n o t k n o w "h o w p rio r k n o w le d g e is ca lle d u p o n from m e m o ry an d h o w it is th e u sed in u n d e rsta n d in g ” (A ld e rs o n , 200, p: 18). F u rth erm o re , a c c o rd in g to S am u el an d K a m il's p o in t o f view (1 9 8 8 ), is th at g en e ratin g a p red ictio n m ay tak e m o re tim e th a n re co g n izin g th e w o rd s. M o re o v e r, for m an y te x ts, th e re ad er has no o r little know ledge o f th e to p ic, a s the result, th e y c a n n o t m ak e an y p re d ic tio n s a b o u t th e tex ts m eanings. 2.1.2.3. Interactive model A n d e rso n has in d icated th at, re ad in g h as b eg u n to be d esc rib ed as “ in tera ctiv e” , w hich c o m b in e e le m e n ts o f both b o tto m - up an d to p - dow n m odels as th e m o st c o m p re h e n siv e d e s c rip tio n o f th e re a d in g p ro cess, a ssu m in g th a t " a p attern is sy n th e siz e d b ase d on in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d sim u lta n e o u sly from sev eral k n o w led g e so u rc e s" (S ta n o v ic h , 1980, p: 35). T h e in tera ctiv e m o d el is a re ad er-d riv en re ad in g m o d e l and re g a rd s re a d in g a s a cyclical p ro c ess. E sk ey (1 9 8 8 ) d efin e d th e in teractiv e m o d el a s a re a d in g m o d el th a t " p o sits a c o n s ta n t in tera ctio n b e tw e e n b o tto m - up an d to p - d o w n p ro c e ssin g in re ad in g , each 10