Tài liệu An investigation into nguyen gia thieu high school students' beliefs about learning english as a foreign language submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements of the degree of master in tesol

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI U N IVERSITY HOANG THI KIM CHI AN INVESTIGATION INTO NGUYEN GIA THIEƯ HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS' BELIEFS ABOUT LEARNING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN TESOL SUPERVISOR: LE VAN CANH, MA Hanoi February 2009 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ........................................................................................................................................................................I A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T ..................................................................................................................................................................... I A B S T R A C T .................................................................................................................................................................................................II L IS T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S ........................................................................................................................................................I l l L IS T O F T A B L E S A N D F I G U R E S ..........................................................................................................................................IV C H A P T E R 1: I N T R O D U C T I O N ......................................................................................................................................................1 1.1. B a c k g r o u n d t o th e s t u d y .....................................................................................................................................................1 1.2. A im s o f th e s t u d y ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.3. C o n t e x t a n d sc o p e o f t h e s t u d y ....................................................................................................................................... 3 1.4. S ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e s t u d y .....................................................................................................................................................4 1.5. O r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e t h e s i s ................................................................................................................................................. 4 C H A P T E R 2: L IT E R A T U R E R E V I E W ......................................................................................................................................6 2.1. D e f in it io n s o f l e a r n e r s ’ b e l i e f s ......................................................................................................................................6 2.2. L e a r n e r s ’ be liefs s y s t e m s ..............................................................................................................................................10 2.3. L a n g u a g e l e a r n in g b e l i e f s ........................................................................................................................................... 13 2.3.1. Definitions..........................................................................................................................................................13 2.3.2. Approaches to the investigation o f language learning beliefs............................................................... 16 2.4. T he im p o r t a n c e o f s t u d y in g l e a r n e r s ’ b e l ie f s .....................................................................................................25 2.5. P r e v io u s s t u d ie s o n b e l ie f s ........................................................................................................................................... 27 C H A P T E R 3 : M E T H O D O L O G Y ..............................................................................................................................................31 3.1. R e s t a t in g th e r e se a r c h q u e s t i o n s ...........................................................................................................................31 3.2. In s t r u m e n t ................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 3.2.1. BALLI questionnaire........................................................................................................................................31 3.2.2. D etails................................................................................................................................................................ 33 3.3. Si ibjects o f th e s t u d y ............................................................................................................................................................34 3.4. D a t a c o l l e c t io n p r o c e d u r e .............................................................................................................................................. 35 3.5. D a t a a n a l y s i s .............................................................................................................................................................................35 C H A P T E R 4 : R E S U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N ........................................................................................................................ 3 6 4.1. H igh s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ’ be lief s a b o u t l a n g u a g e l e a r n in g ............................................................................ 36 4.1.1. Foreign language aptitude:............................................................................................................................37 4.1.2. The difficulty o f language learning.............................................................................................................. 40 4.1.3. The nature o f language learning................................................................................................................... 41 4.1.4. Learning and communication strategies..................................................................................................... 43 4.1.5. Motivations and expectations........................................................................................................................ 46 4.1.6. Sum m ary............................................................................................................................................................ 47 4.2. G e n d e r a n d b e l ie f ................................................................................................................................................................ 48 C H A P T E R 5: C O N C L U S I O N ...................................................................................................................................................... 51 5.1. C o n c l u s i o n ...................................................................................................................................................................................51 5.2. L im it a t io n s o f the s t u d y a n d r e c o m m e n d a t io n s for f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .............................................. 52 R E F E R E N C E S ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 A P P E N D IX A : Q U E S T I O N N A IR E IN V I E T N A M E S E ...................................................................................................60 A P P E N D IX B : Q U E S T I O N N A IR E IN E N G L I S H .............................................................................................................. 64 A P P E N D IX C : T H E R E S U L T S O F B A L L I Q U E S T I O N N A I R E ............................................................................... 68 A P P E N D IX D : P E R M IS S IO N T O U S E B A L L I I N S T R U M E N T ................................................................................72 A P P E N D IX E : P E R M IS S I O N F R O M N G U Y E N G IA T H IE U H IG H S C H O O L .............................................. 75 I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Mr. Le Van Canh (M.A) for his scholarship, patient guidance, encouragement, insightful comments and constructive supervision throughout my research. I am also very grateful to Ms. Nguyen Thai Ha (M.Ed) for her support and feedback. Without her time, expertise and feedback for my proposal and thesis, I would not have been able to complete my work. I am also thankful to the Department o f Post Graduate, Ha noi University for providing the best environment to fulfill my thesis. I would like to express my appreciation to the administrators o f Nguyen Gia Thieu High school for their constant support during my studies. My very special thanks go to all teachers and students o f Nguyen Gia Thieu High school for helping m e duiing the p ioccss o f data oollcction. Finally, I am deeply indebted to all the support and encouragement that m y family has offered me. ABSTRACT This study aims at investigating high school students’ beliefs about learning English as a foreign language. It also aims at exploring the relationship between belief and gender. In order to achieve the aim o f the study, a 33-item questionnaire, which was adopted from the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI), was administered to 140 students from one high school. Questionnaire data were analyzed by means o f descriptive statistics. Results reveal what high school students believed as being important to them in learning English as a foreign language. In addition, it was found that there was no difference between male and female students with regard to their beliefs about learning English. In other words, gender does not affect students’ beliefs about learning English as a foreign language. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ANOVA: Analysis o f variables BAK: Beliefs, assumptions and knowledge BALLI: Beliefs about language learning inventory CLT: Communicative language teaching EFL: English as a foreign language ESL: English as a second language FLA: Foreign language acquisition LI: First language L2: Second language LLB: Language learning belief M: Mean NGTHS: Nguyen Gia Thieu high school P: Probability value SD: Standard deviation SILL: Strategy inventory for language learning SPSS: Statistical package for the social science TESOL: Teachers o f English to speakers o f other languages Table 1: Different Terms and Definitions for Language Learning Beliefs Table 2: Summary o f selected studies in the Normative Approach Table 3: Summary o f selected studies in the M etacognitive Approach Table 4: Summary o f selected studies in the Contextual Approach Table 5: Features, Advantages and Disadvantages o f the three approaches Table 6: Summary o f specific items in the BALLI Table 7: Means and standard deviations for belief factors Tabic 8: A N O V A table for gender differences Figure Figure 1: Foreign language aptitude Figure 2: Difficulty o f language learning Figure 3: Nature o f language learning Figure 4: Learning and communication strategies Figure 5: Motivations and expectations o f learning foreign language CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background to the study The growing importance o f English as an international language is observed in virtually all countries o f the world from its increasing status in educational curricula to its role as the language o f international business, tourism, news broadcasting etc,. In Vietnam, the recognition by the Government o f the growing importance o f English can be seen in its recent initiatives on English language teaching in the high schools, colleges, and universities. Beliefs play a key role in identifying the way learners view language and language learning approaches. It appears obvious that many language learners have definite beliefs about learning a foreign language. Whenever the topic o f foreign languages comes up in a conversation, many people seem eager to express their views and opinions about language learning. Richardson (1996) defines beliefs as psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true. Current definitions o f beliefs found in the foreign language education literature focus primarily on how teachers think about the nature o f foreign languages, teaching and learning. Studies into language learning beliefs have shown that beliefs play a crucial role in language learning. The beliefs students hold about language and language learning affect the way they learn the language. Students’ awareness o f their beliefs, therefore, may help to enhance language learning and to develop their language competence. Such awareness can also help them to become autonomous language learners. They will become not only efficient at learning and using their second language but also able to self-direct these endeavors. Pedagogically, understanding o f students’ beliefs about language learning can help teachers to intervene appropriately in an attempt to modify or change the students’ beliefs. The role beliefs play to the students’ learning outcomes has been empirically justified. Studies on students’ learning beliefs which were conducted internationally have shown that students hold different beliefs or notions about language learning (Horwitz 1987), and those studies support the idea that learners’ beliefs have the potential to influence both their experiences and actions as language learners. According to Putcha (1999), beliefs are guiding principles for our students’ behavior and strong perceptual filters...they act as if they were true. Similarly, Stevick (1980) asserts that learning success is credited more to the beliefs students hold than to the learning materials and teaching techniques. The purpose behind studies on learners’ beliefs varies from study to study. For example, Cortazzi (1990) studied the relationship between learners’ culture and their beliefs about language learning while Bacon and Finnemann (1992) were interested in finding out the relationship between gender and beliefs. Other researchers such as Mantle-Bromley (1995) and W en and Johnson (1997) were interested in investigating the link between learners’ beliefs and their language proficiency. For this purpose, Me Donough (1995) and Victori & Lockhart (1995) studied the impact ofbeliefs on language learning. Mori (1997) conducted a study to look into the beliefs students hold in specific domains o f language learning whereas Cotterall (1995; Sakui & Gaies (1998) were concerned about various dimensions underlying learner’s beliefs. Unlike other researchers, (Kalaja 1995, Sakui & Gaies 1998) looked into the issue o f methods used in studying learners' beliefs. Despite the availability o f extensive research on language learning beliefs, little has been reported on Vietnamese students’ beliefs. Despite the researchers’ effort to track down studies o f this type on Vietnamese high school students, she failed to find any. This study was aimed at contributing knowledge and understanding o f Vietnamese high school students’ beliefs about learning English as a foreign language. Besides, in Vietnamese culture, gender is still a key variable that may directly influence or even determine attitudes or motivations or behaviors. Therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that students o f different genders may have different beliefs about what learning is and how it occurs. This paper will explore the nature o f high school students’ beliefs and the difference between male and female students with regard to their language learning beliefs, if any. The study is limited to a description o f students’ language learning beliefs in the context o f a high school in Vietnam. The study sets out to achieve two following specific purposes: - To find out high school students' beliefs about learning English as a foreign language; - To find out the relationships between beliefs and gender. In order to reach the research aims, the study mainly focused on the research questions as follows: 1. W hat beliefs do high school students have about language learning? 2. Are the beliefs moderated by the gender o f the learner? 1.3. Context and scope o f the study As the title o f the study has indicated, the focus o f the study is on students’ beliefs about learning English as a foreign language at Nguyen Gia Thieu high school (NGTHS). NGTHS was established in 1950 in Gia Lam district, Hanoi. As being an advanced high school o f Hanoi Department o f Education and Training, NGTHS has gained achievements in teaching and learning. With 2150 students, NGTHS always have students who win high prizes at city and nation level - examinations. The English department with 9 teachers is always a leading one in teaching and proposing pedagogical initiatives for better teaching and learning. English is one o f the compulsory subjects in the high school. In the Vietnamese educational system, Vietnamese students learn English from the primary school (since 3rd grade) to university. Learning English is paid more attention to by almost students because they realize the importance o f English in the context o f international globalization. Students in big cities like Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Danang, etc,, have more opportunities to learn English and to meet foreigners to practise English than those who live in the rural area. Students o f NGTHS have quite good English knowledge. The rate o f students who have good marks in English examinations is always high and the number o f students participating in excellent student exams is numerous. Therefore, investigating NGTHS students’ beliefs about language learning is relevant to the current EFL learning context. 1.4. Significance o f the study Research on the beliefs about language learning since Horwitz’s pioneering study in 1985 has shown that some o f these beliefs held by students have damaging effects on their learning. However, there is still a great shortage o f research that investigates the beliefs o f students and especially high school students. Considering these and hinging on the assumption that if students identify their beliefs about learning language they probably become successful in learning a foreign language and knowledge of students' beliefs provides teachers with better understanding o f their students' expectation of, commitment to, success in, and satisfaction with their language classes (Horwitz, 1988, p. 283). Also, it is clear that the study o f students' beliefs is very important for pedagogy which helps students to construct a good understanding o f their language learning processes. Moreover, understanding learner beliefs about language learning is essential to understanding learner strategies and planning appropriate language instruction. Also, investigating the differences between male and female’s beliefs will help teachers select a suitable pedagogical instrument to teach their students. Since understanding o f students’ beliefs about their learning English and the relationship between beliefs and gender will inform teachers o f appropriate pedagogical intervention, this issue has attracted researchers’ interest on the global scale. Thus, the researcher would like to carry out this study to identify the beliefs about learning English o f high school students to determine whether system o f language learning beliefs helps students improve their language competence and strategies. However, little has been published about Vietnamese students’ beliefs about their learning English, this study will, to some extent; contribute to the endeavor to narrow the gap. 1.5. Organization o f the thesis This thesis is composed o f five chapters, which are structured as follows: Chapter 1: “Introduction” deals with the reasons for carrying out this study, states the aims o f the study, research question. The significance and the outline o f the study are also presented. C h ap ter 2: “ Literature review” provides an overview o f literature on learners’ beliefs about language learning. This chapter also presents briefly different viewpoints relating to terminological definitions. The previous studies on learners’ beliefs about language learning are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 3: “Methodology” discusses the methodology for this study and the procedure for carrying out the research such as instruments for data gathering and methods o f data analysis. Chapter 4: “Results and discussion”. In this chapter the collected data were computed and analyzed with the support of SPSS. The results o f the data analysis were presented and discussed. Chapter 5: “Conclusion”. This chapter presents some conclusion and limitations o f the study as well as suggestions for further studies. Following this is a bibliography listing all reference books or materials directly or indirectly quoted in the study. The final section o f the thesis contains the appendices showing all documents serving this inquiry such as questionnaire (English and Vietnamese versions). CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW The study o f students’ beliefs can provide significant insights into many aspects of education. Exploring students’ beliefs is essential to improve their expectations in learning a foreign language. Moreover, learner beliefs about language learning are important to consider because they may be among the most accessible to change by the learner (Horwitz, 1987). This chapter reviews four main issues relevant to the current study, i.e., definitions of learners’ beliefs, learners’ beliefs system, language learning beliefs, the importance of studying learners’ beliefs, and previous studies on language learners’ beliefs. 2.1. Definitions o f learners’ beliefs What are beliefs about language learning? Although learner beliefs are considered to be significant and worth investigating, there is no complete consensus on what beliefs are. A review o f the literature shows diversity in the way beliefs are defined. Below are some o f the definitions o f beliefs about language and language learning: • Notions about language learning that students have acquired (Kuntz 1996:4); • An individual’s opinions about language learning (Banya and Cheng 1997); • Synonymous with attitudes, representations, opinions or ideologies (Fraser and Gaskell 1990); • General assumptions that students hold about themselves as learners, about factors influencing language learning and about the nature o f language learning and teaching (Victori and Lockhart 1995:224); • Central constructs in every discipline which deals with human behavior and learning (Sakui & Gaies 1999:474); • Subjective understandings which are relatively stable and idiosyncratic (Gaies 1998 quoted from Asjomson 1999) Asjornson (1999) explains Gaies’ (1998) proposition as follows: First, beliefs are subjective; therefore, they do not necessarily reflect external reality. Beliefs reflect “truths” held by individuals and, therefore, are potentially facilitative for language learning (e.g., everyone can learn a language) or debilitative (e.g., boys are not good at language learners). Second, beliefs about language learning should be stable over time, which indicates that beliefs are formed and maintained by a complex social and cultural system. Finally, Gaies asserts that beliefs systems are unique to individuals (p.l). Borg (2001) focuses on some common features o f definitions o f beliefs (the truth element; the relationship between beliefs and behavior; conscious versus unconscious; beliefs as value commitments), and makes the following summary: A belief is a proposition which may be consciously held, is evaluative in that it is accepted as true by the individual, and is therefore imbued with emotive commitment; further, it serves as a guide to thought and behavior (p. 186). Dilts (1999) defines beliefs as judgments and evaluations that people make about themselves, about others and about the world around them. However, despite the fact that they are considered “the most valuable psychological construct to teacher education” (Pintrich 1990), beliefs are in fact difficult to conceptualize. Pajares (1992) suggests that one o f the reasons for such a difficulty is the fact that beliefs are “a messy construct” and are often referred to by means o f such different terms as: Attitudes, values, judgments, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principles, perspective, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in the literature (p. 309). Another source o f confusion about the concept o f beliefs is the distinction between beliefs and knowledge. Several researchers have found that beliefs are not so much different from knowledge since beliefs constitute a form o f knowledge (Clark and Peterson 1986; Murphy 2000). However, according to Pajares (1992), although most studies lack a definition of beliefs, they usually make an implicit distinction o f beliefs as “based on evaluation and judgment” and knowledge as “based on objective fact”. In other words, the assumption is that knowledge carries with it an epistemological warranty, whereas beliefs do not. By contrast, according to Nespor (1987) beliefs and knowledge are different in the following ways: 1. Beliefs come into play when teachers attempt to define goals and tasks which they have no direct experience. On the contrary, teachers use knowledge when “the goals and paths to their attainment are well defined” (Nespor 1987:310). 2. Beliefs can be said to relate much more heavily on affective and evaluative components than knowledge (Nespor 1987) since beliefs are “an acceptance proposition for which there is no conventional knowledge, one that is not demonstrable and for which there is accepted disagreement” (Woods 1996:195). In other words, beliefs tend to have a higher degree o f subjectivity than knowledge. On a continuum o f doubts, there is less doubt about knowledge than about beliefs. The more complex a situation gets, the likelier it is for people to have diverse pcispectives. This is when people turn to their beliefs. A belief, thus, represents a person’s choice rather than the one true fact that upon by everyone. 3. Beliefs are often static whereas knowledge often changes. 4. Knowledge can be evaluated or judged whereas beliefs are relatively difficult to evaluate or judge because o f the lack o f agreement o f how they should be assessed. In an attempt to reduce the distinction among knowledge and beliefs, Wood (1996) suggested a heuristic relationship between beliefs and knowledge and proposed the inclusive term, BAK (beliefs, assumptions and knowledge). The acronym BAK that he uses refers not only to beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge, but also to the relationship between these three constructs and to their interrelated structure. Parajes (1992) suggests the following synthesis o f beliefs drawn from his review o f the literature on the topic: 1. Beliefs are formed early. In fact, the earlier a belief is incorporated into the belief structure, the more difficult it is to alter. Newly acquired beliefs are most vulnerable to change. 2. Beliefs appear to be self-perpetuated and resistant to change. They tend to be preserved even against contradiction caused by reason, time, schooling, or experience. In addition, individuals tend to hold on to beliefs based on incorrect or incomplete knowledge even after scientifically correct explanations are presented to them. This is the reason why beliefs appear to be static, resistant to change and are generally not affected by reading and applying the findings o f educational research (see Hall and Loucks 1982; Nespor 1987; and Brousseiau et al. 1988). 3. People develop a belief system that houses all the beliefs acquired through the process o f cultural transmission. 4. Beliefs are prioritized according to their connections or relationship to other beliefs. In fact, Woods (1996) speculates that the more teachers’ beliefs are interconnected with other beliefs they are more difficult to change. 5. Beliefs strongly influence perception and behavior although they are unreliable guides to the nature o f reality. 6. Beliefs play a key role in defining tasks and selecting the cognitive tools with which to interpreter, plan, and make decisions regarding such tasks. Therefore they play a critical role in defining behavior and organizing knowledge and information. In summary, although the definitions o f beliefs are not consistently defined, those listed above clearly show what is involved in studying beliefs about language learning and indicate the importance o f studying learners’ beliefs are well defined. For the purpose of the present study, the definition by Victori and Lockhart (1995) was adopted, according to which beliefs are: g e n e r a l a s s u m p tio n s th at stu d e n ts h o ld a b o u t t h e m s e lv e s a s le a r n e r s, a b o u t fa c to r s in f lu e n c in g la n g u a g e le a r n in g an d a b o u t th e n a tu re o f la n g u a g e le a r n in g an d te a c h in g (p . 2 2 4 ) The reasons for adopting this definition lie in the fact that it is hard to make a distinction between beliefs and opinions, and beliefs influence the way learners view language, language learning as well as the way o f learning language. This definition is also simple but sufficiently comprehensive to be a framework for the discussion o f the results o f the study, which is a survey in nature. 2.2. Learners’ beliefs systems According to Richard and Lockhart (1996:52), learners’ beliefs systems cover a number o f aspects, including beliefs about the nature o f English, the speaker o f English, the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), teaching activities, language learning, and about the goals for language learning. 2.2.1. B eliefs ab o u t the nature o f E nglish Beliefs about the nature o f English are considered perceptions about the difficulty o f English language aspects and the status o f English in comparison to other languages (Tumposky, 1991). Learners’ perceptions about which particular aspect o f English is difficult may influence how they approach learning English. For example, learners believe that learning a new language is learning vocabulary; they may spend most o f their time and effort on this strategy. Or the learners think that the most important part of learning English is learning grammar, they can focus more on studying grammatical rules. Learner judgments about the status o f English may be critical to the development o f students’ expectations for and commitment to learning English (Horwitz, 1987). If they recognise the importance o f English in the global context nowadays, they are likely to try their best to study it well for the better opportunity in the future. On the other hand, learners, whose belief is that English is the world’s most important language, will be more motivated and put greater efforts into their learning English. 2.2.2. Beliefs about the speakers of English Learners often have specific views and attitudes about native speakers o f English, based on their contacts with speakers o f English or derived from other sources, such as the media. These kinds o f opinions can influence the degree to which students wish to interact with native speakers. For instance, some learners believe that Englishmen are people who pronounce English most correctly; they may try their best to practice with Englishmen to have correct English pronunciation like them. Or a belief that Americans are very friendly makes students more motivated in communicating with them. It is possible to see that those attitudes learners have about native speakers may be influenced by cross-cultural differences in communicative style between English speakers and people from another culture. 2.2.3. Beliefs about the four language skills Learners’ beliefs abuul language m ay also be reflected in specific assum ptions about tho nature o f listening, speaking, reading and writing. Richard and Lockhart (1996) state, students have very different understanding o f the nature o f four language skills. Some learners find that they are good at English listening just because they spend much time for practising with cassette and make use o f opportunity to practise with the native speakers o f English. Or in the case o f developing writing skill, some learners show the habit o f reading magazines and newspapers. They think that reading magazines can help them improve their vocabulary and learn some writing tips for writing better. In brief, learners’ beliefs about the nature o f four language skills are formed in light o f their previous experience as language learners. Those beliefs guide the way students learn four skills during class time and influence the kind o f strategies they use (Richard & Lockhart, 1996). By the time a student completes secondary school, she or he has been exposed to thousands o f hours of teaching from a number o f different teachers. As a result, the learner may have formed very definite views about what particular type o f instruction is the best way for them to learn. Learners from different cultures may have different expectations regarding the roles and responsibilities o f teachers in general and of English teachers in particular. For example, in the study conducted by Cortazzi and Jin (1996), the findings showed that the most common expectation o f the Chinese students in the study is that the teacher should have deep knowledge o f his/her subject. Moreover, the teacher should be able to answer all sorts o f questions and should be a symbol o f knowledge. It seems to be clear that Chinese students emphasizes the central role of the teacher in providing and transmitting knowledge to students, whereas in Western countries that role o f the teacher lies in guiding and pointing out students the way to the treasure house o f knowledge. With regard to what they expect from English teachers in a language lesson, a great number o f Chinese students in Cortazzi and Jin’s (1996) study think that the teacher should explain grammatical rules, and correct their mistakes. This belief derives trom grammar-based teaching, which has been exposed to learners in high school. Whereas, in the Western countries, students think that their teachers as the supervisors meaning that the teachers just suggest and give students instructions to stimulate to think and express themselves, helping them more active and confident when studying. It is important to note that learners’ beliefs about teaching do not always match with teachers’ beliefs. For instance, the learners believe that studying in group work is not effective because some people in the group do not work while teachers believe that group work can help students motivate their creativeness and sharing ideas with others. The mismatch may lead to students undervaluing an activity assigned by the teacher. Consequently, it may negatively affect learner motivation and learning outcome. Beliefs about language learning refer to students’ notions, perceived ideas, insights, concepts, opinions, representations, assumptions, or mini-theories o f the nature of language or language learning (Holec, 1981; Horwitz, 1987; Hosenfeld, 1978; Omaggio, 1978; Wenden, 1987a). It is generally agreed that individual language students hold different beliefs about how language is learned. Individual beliefs about language learning may consciously or unconsciously influence students’ approaches to or behaviors in language learning. For example, students who embrace the importance o f learning grammar would focus on learning the structure o f a sentence or the patterns of a language in formal language learning. As Horwitz (1985, 1987) insisted, it is important to understand learner beliefs to better understand learner approaches to language learning, and learners’ use o f learning strategies to appropriately plan language instruction. 2.2.6. Beliefs about the goals for language learning Learners may have different goals for language. Some learners learn a language for the purpose o f communication with speakers o f that language. Others want to learn a foreign language to have a chance o f studying abroad or finding a good job at foreign company. Or the main goal for others may be to become efficient interpreters. According to Horwitz (1987), some students prefer to have more free conversation rather than pattern drills. Some other students insist on their teacher’s correction. If language classes fail to meet these kinds o f expectations, students may end up being frustrated. This may lead to affecting to learners’ progress in language learning. 2.3. Language learning beliefs 2.3.1. Definitions Language learning beliefs (LLB) have been a topic o f research for many years. Defining LLB is difficult because, as in the case with beliefs, several terms have been used to refer to LLB. These terms seem to reflect different researchers’ agendas. Some o f the terms are fo lk linguistic theories o f learning (Miller & Ginsberg, 1995), learner representations (Holec, 1987), representations (Riley, 1994), learners' philosophy o f