Tài liệu Watchstanding guide for the merchant officer

WATCHSTANDING GUIDE FOR THE MERCHANT OFFICER ROBERT J. MEURN Master Mariner To Christine and Cathryn Copyright © 1990 by Cornell Maritime Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, address Cornell Maritime Press, Inc., Centreville, Maryland 21617. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Meum, Robert J. Watchstanding guide for the merchant officer -1st ed. p. cm. ISBN 0-87033-409-3 1. Merchant marine-Watch duty. I. Title. VK233.M48 1990 623.88'24--dc20 / by Robert J. Meum. Manufactured in the United States of America First edition 89-71208 CIP Contents Figures, viii Tables, xi Foreword, xii Preface, xiii 1 Watchstanding Responsibilities, Preparing for and Standing the Watch, 3 2 Bridge Equipment, 17 3 Voyage Planning and Record Keeping, 37 4 Compliance with the Rules of the Road, 73 5 Shipboard Emergencies, 90 6 Ship handling for the Watch Officer, 100 7 Arrivals and Departures, 128 8 Bridge Simulation Training, 152 9 Case Studies, 173 Appendices A Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, 204 B SS Capella Bridge Standing Orders, 215 Index, 229 About the Author, 233 Figures 0 Figures 2-1. 2-2. 2-3. 2-4. 2-5. 2-6. 2-7. 2-8. 2-9. 2-10. 2-11. 2-12. 2-13. 2-14. 2-15. 2-16. 3-1. 3-2. 3-3. 3-4. 3-5. 3-6. 3-7. 3-8. 3-9. 3-10. 3-11. NORCONTROL radar, 19 Racal-Decca ARPA, 19 Raytheon ARPA, 20 Racal-Decca Rasterscan displaying range (6 miles), range rings (1 mile each), bearing (080.0) and distance (1.23 miles), 20 Magnavox satellite navigator, 21 Above, fathometer; below, fathometer recorder, 23 Loran, 24 Decca, 26 Omega, 27 Above, Raytheon ADF; below, Bendix RDF, 28 VHF radiotelephone, 29 Automatic pilot, 31 Author supervising changeover from auto to hand steering aboard TS Texas Clipper during summer cruise of 1978, 32 Rate of turn indicator, 33 Doppler speed log, 34 Penlight, 35 Main causes of navigation casualty. (Courtesy of Capt. Richard Beadon), 38 Vessel on course 110 (T), 47 Indexing on 12-mile range scale, 48 Parallel index to port-PPI north up; gyro stabilized; radar echo between ship head and PI, 49 Parallel index to starboard-PPI north up; gyro stabilized; radar echo between ship head and PI, 49 Parallel index to starboard-PPI north up; gyro stabilized; radar echo outside of PI, 49 Parallel index to port-PPI north up; gyro stabilized; radar echo outside of PI, 49 Planned approach to an SBM. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Wars ash, U.K.), 50 Cross index range (CIR) of 1.86 miles from Gusong Tower. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, UK.), 51 CIR of 1.86 miles on reflection plotter. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, UK.), 52 Gusong Tower radar echo in position A on reflection plotter. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, UK.), 53 0 viii IX 3-12. Second parallel index line to 0.67 (T) track from Gusong Tower of 0.38 mile. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, U.K.), 54 3-13. Track of vessel changing course from 0090 (T) to 0670 (T). (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, UK.), 55 3-14. Plotted positions on the reflection plotter joined into a smooth curve. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, U.K.), 56 3-15. Intended maneuver as plotted on the reflection plotter. (Courtesy of the College of Maritime Studies, Warsash, U.K.), 57 3-16. Passage plan. (Courtesy of EXXON), 60 3-17. Passage plan developed by Capt. Richard Beadon for the cadet bridge watch keeping course on the CAORF simulator at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, 61 3-18. Passage plan for arrival Limon Bay (Cristobal), Panama, 61 3-19. Chart extract from DMA 26068 (Puerto Cristobal) with track and notations, 62-63 3-20. Notations in conning or bridge notebook for arrival Limon Bay (Cristobal), 64 3-21. Log entry for arrival Limon Bay (Cristobal), 71-72 4-1. The four states in a collision situation. (Courtesy of A. N. Cockroft and J. N. F. Lameijer from Guide to Collision Regulations), 80 4-2. Assessment, action, and close-quarters situation sectors of the 12-mile range scale. (Courtesy of A. N. Cockroft and J. N. F. Lameijer from Guide to Collision Regulations), 83 4-3. Calling a vessel on your starboard bow, 85 4-4. Calling a vessel on your port bow, 85 4-5. Azimuth circle for taking visual bearings, 88 5-1. Hypothermia survival chart, 99 6-1. Turning circle. (Courtesy of US. Naval Amphibious School, Little Creek, Virginia), 103 6-2. Above, a view from the bridge as a 150,000-ton tanker collides with an oncoming wave; below, head-on poundings by the sea can cause damage to the vessel which may necessitate reducing RPMs. (Courtesy of the San Francisco Examiner), 105 6-3. Formation of ice on the vessel's superstructure will affect the vessel's stability, 106 6-4. Sea state photographs for determining wind speed from the Beaufort Wind Force Scale. (Courtesy of NOAA, adapted from their May 1987 chart), 108-11 6-5. Meteorological events by month. (Adapted from Ocean Routes, March 1985; used by permission), 113 6-6. Heavy weather report. (Courtesy of EXXON), 115 6-7. Convoy operations (Courtesy of MEBA District Two), 117 x Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer 6-8. Standard grid formation used in convoy exercises for vessels assigned to Maritime Pre-Position Squadron TWO in Diego Garcia (distance between ships is 2,000 yards), 118 6-9. Circular formation (form 70) used in convoy exercises for vessels assigned to Maritime Pre-Position Squadron TWO in Diego Garcia, 119 6-10. Underway replenishment, coast-in method. (Courtesy of U.S. Naval Amphibious School, Little Creek, Virginia), 120 7-1. Master/pilot information exchange form, 134 7-2. Arrival checklist, 136 7-3. Predeparture gear checklist, 146 7-4. Bridge sailing or shifting checkoff, 149 7-5. MV President F. D. Roosevelt Pre-Arrival/Departure Gear Test. (Courtesy of American President Lines), 150-51 7-6. Departure checklist-factors for a watch officer to consider, 151 8-1. Major CAORF subsystems, 159 8-2. Above, CAORF bridge (port view); below, CAORF bridge (starboard view), 160 8-3. CAORF chart desk with fathometer, VHF receiver, running light panel, satnav, and anemometer, 161 8-4. Cadet Watch Team Grading Sheet, 163 8-5. SUSAN layout. (Courtesy of SUSAN, Hamburg), 166 8-6. SUSAN visual system. (Courtesy of SUSAN, Hamburg), 167 8-7. Instructor's control station console. (Courtesy of SUSAN, Hambura), 167 8-8. Bridge cabinet. (Courtesy of SUSAN, Hamburg), 168 8-9. Bridgewing simulator at Newport, Rhode Island. (Courtesy of MSI), 170 9-1. MV Stockholm ramming into the SS Andrea Doria on July 25, 1956. (Courtesy of J. C. Carrothers and U. S. Naval Institute), 174 9-2. Approaches of the MV Stockholm and the SS Andrea Doria. (Courte.)' of J. C. Carrothers and U. S. Naval Institute), 175 9-3. The fatal error made by the watch officer on the MV Stockholm. (Courtesy of J. C. Carrothers and Titanic Historical Society), 176 9-4. The 5,881-ton Hellenic Carrier is sailing toward Norfolk, still in fOI. with a large hole in her side after a collision with the 26,406-ton LASH Atlantico while about 25 miles southeast of Cape Henry. (u. S. CO'" ' Guard photo, courtesy of Mariners Weather Log, May-June 1981), 9-5. Track of the Torrey Canyon, 184 9-6. Track of the Mobil Endeavor, 187 9-7. Grounding of the Maritime Gardenia, 192 9-8. Track of the Maritime Gardenia, 193 9-9. Proposed air cushion merchant ship. The 420-foot vessel would havl~'1 beam of 140 feet and coul? cruise at 80 knots. (C~urtesy of Bell systems and Thomas C. Glllmer from Modern ShIp Design (Anna~, MD.: Naval Institute Press), 203 " Tables 1-1. Leading Primary Causes of U. S. Ship Collisions from 1970 through 1979, 12 1-2. Changing of Watch Checkoff, 15 1-3. Maersk Line Checklist for Change of Watch, 16 8-1. Full Bridge Simulators, 154-55 8-2. U.S.M.M.A. Bridge Watch standing Course, 158 8-3. Warsash Bridge Watchkeeper's Course, 164-65 8-4. Levels of Normal Manning, 171 117' AI.:" Xl Foreword Preface The turbulent world of nautical education and training heaps academic degrees upon its citizens and prepares them for service not only afloat but also ashore. The deck officer oftoday's merchant fleets is much more educated in "matters maritime" and generally trained to a much higher level than his counterpart of yesterday. Midst this climate of advancement it is often easy to lose sight of some fundamental aspects of the honourable profession of those who go down to the sea in ships. One of the more important of these aspects is bridge watchstanding, or keeping a safe navigational watch as my colleagues across the Atlantic would say. With some exceptions, training programs generally do not include a segment that deals specifically with watchkeeping. This guide, dedicated solely to watch standing at sea, is rare and long overdue. As a former team member of the Ship Simulation Centre of the College of Maritime Studies at Warsash, Southampton, United Kingdom, I was involved in the development and implementation of ship simulator-based bridge watchkeeping preparatory courses for the international maritime community. My interest in, and admiration for, Captain Meum's book is, therefore, of a personal nature. The nine chapters of this book provide all the aspects of watch keeping, including the requirements and recommendations of the International Maritime Organization. In addition, Captain Meum has devoted a chapter each to voyage planning and bridge simulation. The former deals with the requirements of appraisal, planning, monitoring, and execution of a navigational passage, and the latter provides a summary of shipsimulation establishments worldwide that provide bridge watchstanding courses. I am also delighted to see that Captain Meum has not limited the technical vocabulary of the book to that used in the United States. Where applicable, he has included terms used on both sides of the Atlantic; therefore, his book should have an international appeal and be an essential part of any watchkeeper's library-and preferably kept very close at hand. Richard G. Beadon This book was written to help ease a cadet's or able-bodied seaman's transition to an officer in charge of a watch aboard a merchant vessel. An observer on the bridge of a merchant vessel can easily critique the performance of a watch officer (OOW) and visualize how much better he or she could stand the watch. It is only upon assuming the first watch at sea, with the license on the line, that the officer realizes the full weight of his or her responsibility for the safe navigation of the vessel. At the very least, the officer of the watch should be ready to comply with the requirements of the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW, 1978). Upon assuming my first watch aboard a C2 cargo vessel, I quickly achieved the turnover when the course was repeated as the second mate departed the wheelhouse. With aids to navigation flashing and many contacts, I moved to the radar where I had observed many watch officers stand their watch. The vessel was en route from New York to Philadelphia and my 20-24 watch commenced with the vessel's position unknown and the status of contacts uncertain. I completed a rapid radar plot on five active contacts and determined two to be on steady bearing and decreasing range. Being unfamiliar with the layout of the bridge, and having forgotten my flashlight, I searched for the sound-powered phone with a cigarette lighter in order to call the master. By now the helmsman was amused and did not even think of helping the brand-new third mate. After writing all the contact information on a piece of paper illuminated by the lighter, I placed my call. During my long conversation about unnecessary bearings and ranges the piece of paper caught fire. My screams of pain convinced the captain that he was needed on the bridge. Without looking at the radar or my plots the captain went directly to the starboard bridgewing and took several visual bearings. He then took the conn and extricated the vessel from a precarious meeting-and-crossing situation. After the contacts cleared, the captain asked me what the vessel's position was. When I answered, "I don't know," he asked about the relieving process and whether I had read the standing orders or signed the night orders. After another negative answer I received a reprimand, xii xiii xv Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer Preface which made quite an impression on me at the tender age of twenty-one. Since then there have been many watches, but the first watch made me realize that something was missing in my preparation for standing watch. The solution for a new officer, I feel, is to achieve more experience as an acting watch officer, particularly during arrivals and departures, to spend time on a bridge simulator, and to study the guidelines in this book. Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer should not only help the new watch officer but also refresh experienced mates. The safe navigation of the vessel relies on the ship's "team"-the master, the navigator, and the watch officer. This book provides an understanding of safe navigation so all members and potential members of a ship's team can work as a unit in observing the three "C's" of safe navigation: "communication, cooperation, and coordination." In addition, the six "P's" are stressed: "Proper prior planning prevents poor performance." Last, but not least, I acknowledge the assistance of my wife, Christine, who typed, proofread, and edited the manuscript. Her patience, encouragement, and advice extended beyond being a good wife. Her guidance proved to be the autopilot that kept this book on course from departure to an on-time arrival. xiv There are many mariners whose experiences at sea are drawn upon for this book. For these experiences I am extremely grateful. Acknowledgment is gratefully made for the permissions granted by authors to quote passages from their books and symposium papers. In particular, the comments of A. N. Cockroft and J. N. F. Lameijer in their book, A Guide to the Collision A voidance Rules, were very appropriate for inclusion in chapter 4. Captain Richard G. Beadon read every page and his advice and recommendations were crucial in maintaining the track of the book. Because of his experience as a master mariner, pilot, and innovative manager of nautical colleges in Fiji and the United Kingdom, his expertise was invaluable. Captain Beadon's concept of simulator training is identical to mine. His input in chapter 8 and throughout the book is gratefully acknowledged. Organizations providing necessary material for the book include the International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Marine Simulator Forum (IMSF), International Maritime Lecturers Association (IMLA), Department of Trade of the United Kingdom, International Chamber of Shipping, United States Coast Guard, and the Maritime Administration. Captain Jens Frose, director of the SUSAN Ship Simulator, Hamburg, and Captain David Douglas, principal lecturer at the College of Maritime Studies Simulator, Warsash, United Kingdom, provided valuable guidance and insight so that this book would be applicable to watchkeepers around the world. WATCHSTANDING GUIDE FOR THE MERCHANT OFFICER CHAPTER ONE Watchstanding Responsibilities, Preparing for and Standing the Watch HE term watch, according to the dictionary, means to "look attentively or carefully." Watch also means a "period of time for guarding." In nautical use it is the time of duty (usually four hours) of one part (usually a third) of a ship's crew. Synonyms for the term, watch, include watchful, vigilant, and alert. Watchful suggests paying close attention and observing carefully or keeping careful guard. Vigilant means constantly and keenly watchful for a definite reason or purpose, especially to see and avoid danger. Alert emphasizes being wide-awake and ready to meet what comes. The officer of the watch is the master's representative, and his or her primary responsibility at all times is the safe navigation of the ship. The watch officer must be familiar with the handling characteristics of the vessel and must ensure compliance with all regulations for preventing collisions at sea. In addition, the watch officer must ensure that an efficient lookout is maintained. On vessels with a separate chart room the watch officer, before visiting that room in the performance of navigational duties, should make sure that it is safe to do so and that an efficient lookout is being maintained. Recent developments in the design of merchant ships have lead toward heavy reductions in crew members. This means that the role of the watch stander is becoming more one of surveillance and data handling. T WATCHKEEPING Investigations into casualties involving collisions and groundings frequently reveal that the main contributing factor has been the failure to maintain an adequate navigational watch. Regulations and resolutions agreed upon by representatives to the International Maritime Organization are intended to assist seafarers in fulfilling their watchkeeping duties 3 4 Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer properly. To form a basis for the discussion of watchkeeping in this book, extracts from the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978 (STCW), the most authoritative literature on the subject, are provided in appendix A. The extracts include "Basic Principles to Be Observed in Keeping a Safe Navigational Watch,'" "Recommendation on Operational Guidance for Officers in Charge of a Navigational Watch'" and "Recommendations on Principles and Operational Guidance for Deck Officers-in-Charge of a Watch in Port.'" WATCH STANDING TASKS The tasks and checklist items of the watch officer can be divided into those that occur on the open sea and those that are applicable only in restricted waters. While the list below is not all inclusive, it can be used as a guide for each condition of the watch described. Open Sea Changing Watch (before Relieving) 1. Check standing and night orders and special information; acknowledge by signature. 2. Check vessel's position on chart. 3. Evaluate course line projected for duration of watch. 4. Check vessel's speed. 5. Determine if any hazardous potential exists with traffic. 6. Evaluate weather and sea conditions for danger. 7. Check running lights. 8. Check personnel assigned to watch. 9. Check compasses. 10. Determine status of electronic navigational aids. 11. Determine status of VHF monitoring. 12. Check course recorder. 13. Check chronometers. 14. Receive appropriate watch information and relieve mate of watch after adjusting vision for a night watch. Change of Watch (Being Relieved) 1. Plot dead-reckoning (DR) track. Watchstanding Responsibilities 5 2. Check status of all navigational equipment. 3. Update radar plot of traffic. 4. Orally transfer information regarding status of vessel to relieving mate. 5. Verify that relieving mate has accepted responsibility for the watch. 6. Enter appropriate information into ship log. Visual Monitoring Tasks 1. Instruct lookout as to duties. 2. Clean and adjust binoculars. 3. Scan horizon to detect traffic or navigational aids and verify with binoculars if necessary. 4. Determine type, aspect, and relative motion of contacts. 5. Utilize azimuth circle to take bearings. 6. Maintain watch on the ship's smoke, weather changes, watertight openings, gear secured, personnel on deck, etc. Collision A voidance Tasks 1. Adjust/operate radar and/or collision avoidance system (CAS). 2. Delete/erase plots of past threat contacts. 3. Monitor radar for contacts. 4. Plot and maintain bearing and range of contacts on radar. 5. Plot targets on maneuvering board for verification. 6. Receive reports of visual contact (lookout). 7. Communicate with the engineering watch as appropriate. 8. Observe visual bearings of visual contacts. 9. Determine closest point of approach (CPA) and collision avoidance maneuver. 10. Communicate on VHF to threat vessel. 11. Inform master of situation and intentions. 12. Execute collision avoidance maneuver. Navigation Tasks 1. Observe azimuth of celestial body. 2. Determine gyro error and magnetic deviation. 3. Obtain position by use of Omega, Decca, or Loran receiver. 4. Obtain position by use of satellite navigation system. 5. Compare (3) or (4) with DR position. Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer 6 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Detennine current set and drift; calculate vessel's speed. Observe and plot sun sight; obtain altitude and intercept. Detennine time of meridian transit. Observe meridian altitude. Detennine celestial fix using sun lines. Calculate and execute appropriate course changes based on navigation fix infonnation. Detennine day's run and speed. Monitor radar to detect aids to navigation or other charted positions. Plot radar fix. Detennine ETA to pilot station. Use RDF to check position. Use fathometer to check position. Monitor navigational aids: fathometer, gyrocompass, satellite navigator, and Loran. Introduce waypoints in satellite navigator. Communication Tasks 1. Use sound-powered phone to call master, engine room, standby, etc. 2. Monitor channels 16 and 13 on VHF radiotelephone. 3. Use VHF radiotelephone to initiate a safety/urgency/distress message. 4. Receive and record broadcasts from weather forecast/USCG security, etc. 5. Interpret and reply to flag signals of other vessel(s). 6. Receive, record, and send flashing light message. 7. Sound ship's whistle as appropriate for maneuvers, emergency, etc. Ship Control Tasks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Change steering mode from auto to manual. Maneuver vessel to clear other vessel(s). Maneuver vessel as needed to clear smoke (blowing tubes). Reduce vessel's speed. Maneuver vessel for man overboard. Maneuver vessel to make lee for small boat (for example, pilot boat). Watchstanding Responsibilities 7 Safety/Casualty Tasks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Respond to man overboard emergency. Respond to engine or steering failure, other emergencies. Monitor vessel for loose gear, watertightness, etc. Participate in lifeboat and emergency drills. Respond to specific equipment alanns (for example, gyrocompass casualty). Heavy Weather Tasks 1. Check that all movable objects on deck, ports, and deadlights have been secured where necessary. 2. Warn crew to check and secure objects belowdecks. 3. Infonn engine room. 4. Infonn master. 5. Adjust speed and course as necessary; take on ballast. 6. Warn crew to avoid upper deck areas that are dangerous due to weather; ensure that safety lines/hand ropes have been rigged where necessary. 7. Monitor weather reports more frequently. 8. Transmit weather report. Ice Navigation Tasks 1. Inform master. 2. Infonn engine room; keep a good lookout. 3. Adjust speed; skirt to windward, if possible; maintain headway. 4. Shut watertight doors as appropriate; drain fire mains on deck. 5. Warn ship's crew to keep ice from accumulating topside. 6. Monitor appropriate broadcasts from an ice advisory service. 7. Transmit danger messages [SaLAS 1974 Chapter V, Regulation 2(a)]. 8. Enter ice mass perpendicular to edge at slow speed; if you must collide with large chunks of ice, do it head on. Tropical Storm Area Navigation Tasks 1. Infonn master. 2. Infonn engine room. 3. Adjust speed and course as necessary; take on ballast. 8 Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer 4. See that movable objects on deck are checked and, where necessary, secured. 5. Warn crew to check and secure objects belowdecks, as well as rig safety lines on deck. 6. Monitor appropriate meteorological instruments and weather reports. 7. Transmit danger message, if necessary [SOLAS 1974 Chapter V, Regulation 2(a)]. 8. Transmit weather report. Miscellaneous 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wind and compare chronometers. Observe and record marine weather observations. Prepare weather report. Maintain miscellaneous logs and records. Obtain an appropriate marine weather map from a radio facsimile receiver. Watchstanding Responsibilities 9 tional Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, more commonly referred to as the Collision Regulations or COLREGS. Navigation Tasks Tasks described in the open sea condition also would be applied for coastwise or harbor approach navigation. Particular items (2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 16, 18) would receive more emphasis in restricted waters depending on circumstances. Other tasks that would be performed at this time are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Predict zone time of sunset/sunrise for ETA at pilot station. Determine ETA at berth. Determine vessel's clearance with bottom at berth. Predict time of sighting specific aids to navigation. Communication Tasks These tasks would be practically identical to those noted in the open sea condition. At the approach to a harbor, additional specific communication tasks would be required: Restricted Waters Changing Watch (before and upon Relief) The changing of the watch in restricted waters would include the same tasks listed in the open sea condition. Greater emphasis should be placed on specific information required from radar plotting for detecting traffic or aids to navigation. 1. Inform pilot of vessel condition upon arrival (for example, equipment status). 2. Order proper flags to be hoisted. 3. Notify vessel personnel of arrival information. 4. Place/receive calls via coast stations. Miscellaneous Tasks Visual Monitoring Tasks The tasks required in restricted waters for visual monitoring would be identical to those for the open sea condition with the addition of the following tasks: 1. Observe and identify specific aids to navigation. 2. Be alert for local traffic. 3. Observe and plot visual lines of position for visual fix. Collision A voidance Tasks Tasks noted in collision avoidance for the open sea condition are essentially the same as those required for restricted waters with the addition of the need to identify the line of demarcation specified in the Interna- Preparing for harbor entry. Anchoring/Docking/Undocking 1. Monitor navigation process; assist master and pilot as required. 2. Check appropriate equipment before entering or getting under way. 3. Stand anchor watch. PREPARING FOR AND STANDING THE WATCH The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) Navigation Casualty Report No. 15 of January 1976 summarized the results of many inves- 10 Watchstanding Responsibilities Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer tigations at international levels. The report stated that the following two factors seem to be the main causes of collisions and groundings: failure to keep a good lookout and weaknesses in bridge organization. An extract from the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom Casualty Analysis No.2, includes the following about keeping a good lookout: The maintenance of a continuous and alert lookout by the officer of the watch is the single and most important consideration in the avoidance of navigational casualties. The keeping of an efficient lookout requires to be interpreted in its fullest sense, which includes the following items: (a) A constant alert all round visual lookout to enable a full grasp of the current situation, including ships and landmarks in the vicinity, to be maintained; (b) The need to observe changes in the weather, includingespecially-the visibility; (c) The need to observe closely the movements and compass bearing of approaching vessels; (d) The need to identify ship and shore lights with precision; (e) The need to observe the radar and echo sounder displays; (f) The need to ensure that the course is steered accurately and that-where relevant-helm orders are correctly executed. Masters may issue standing instructions covering the foregoing, supplemented by a night order book, but in any case there is a clear requirement that officers of the watch should be in no doubt of what action masters expect them to take. According to a report by the National Transportation Safety Board dated September 9,1981 and titled "Special Study-Major Marine Collisions and Effects of Preventive Recommendations,'" the leading cause of marine collisions from 1970 through 1979 was human error. See table 1-1. In 1982,236 ships (totaling 1,460,000 gross registered tons) were lost through various causes and five years later there was a loss of 156 ships (totaling 1,207,400 gross registered tons).l Records are not available for accidents that did not result in the loss of a ship. The reason for this reduced casualty rate is difficult to determine, but what is known is that "human error'" still plays a major role in shipping casualties and accidents.2 At this point it is appropriate to mention the United Kingdom Department of Trade Merchant Shipping Notice No. M.854 entitled "Navigation Safety.'" This notice follows and its annex can be found in chapter 3. u.K. Dept. of Trade Merchant Shipping Notice No. M.854 NAVIGATION SAFETY Weaknesses in bridge organization were addressed in the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom Casualty Analysis No.1: Weaknesses in bridge organization have also been a common failure in many casualties. This term includes such matters as the following: (a) Setting double watches in appropriate circumstances; (b) Ensuring sufficient personnel are available in special circumstances, e.g. heavy traffic; (c) Precise instructions for calling the master; (d) Posting lookouts; (e) Manning the wheel; (f) An established drill for changing over from automatic to manual steering; (g) Precise instructions regarding reducing speed in the event of reduced visibility. 11 Notice to Shipowners, Masters and Deck Officers in the Merchant Navy and Skippers and Second Hands of Fishing Vessels 1. 1. Institute Research into recent accidents occurring to ships has shown that by far the most important contributory cause of navigational accidents is human error, and in of Shipping Economics and Logistics. Shipping Statistics Yearbook, 1987. Bremen, West Germany, 1987. 2. R. D. Vardon. "Lessons That May Be Learned from Casualty Investigations of Shipboard Personnel." Paper presented Maritime Lecturers Association, to Fifth International Conference Sydney, Nova Scotia, September 1988. for Teaching of the International Watchstanding Responsibilities 13 many cases information which would have prevented the accident was available to those responsible for the navigation of the ships concerned. 2. There is no evidence to show serious deficiency on the part of deck officers with respect to either basic training in navigation skills or ability to use navigational instruments and equipment; but accidents happen because one person makes the sort of mistake to which all human beings are prone in a situation where there is no navigational regime constantly in use which might enable the mistake to be detected before an accident occurs. 3. To assist masters and deck officers to appreciate the risks to which they are exposed and to provide help in reducing these risks it is recommended that steps are taken to: (a) Ensure that all the ship's navigation is planned in adequate detail with contingency plans where appropriate; (b) Ensure that there is a systematic bridge organization that provides for: (1) comprehensive briefing of all concerned with the navigation of the ship; (2) close and continuous monitoring of the ship's position ensuring as far as possible that different means of determining position are used to check against error in anyone system; (3) cross checking of individual human decisions so that errors can be detected and corrected as early as possible; (4) information available from plots of other traffic to be used carefully to ensure against overconfidence, bearing in mind that other ships may alter course and speed. (c) Ensure that optimum and systematic use is made of all information that becomes available to the navigational staff; (d) Ensure that the intentions of a pilot are fully understood and acceptable to the ship's navigational staff. 14 Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer 4. The Annex to this Notice provides information on the planning and conduct of passages which may prove useful to mariners. [This annex can be found in chapter 3.] PREPARATION In accordance with STCW the watch system should be such that the efficiency of watchkeeping officers is not impaired by fatigue. Duties should be organized so that the first watch at the commencement of a voyage and the subsequent relieving watches are sufficiently rested and otherwise fit for duty. In accordance with the United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46, Parts 157.20-5(b) and 157.20-1O(a) the three-watch system extends to all licensed officers and they shall not be required to be on duty more than 8 hours in anyone day except under extraordinary conditions. On today's merchant vessel fatigue can be a problem, especially for the chief mate who stands a watch on three-mate vessels. The watch officer must prepare himself for the watch, keeping in mind that proper prior preparation prevents poor performance. He or she must be familiar with the passage plan and the chart that will be utilized during the four-hour watch. The watch officer must read and sign the standing orders prior to his first watch, be in the chart room at least 20 minutes prior to the watch, and become familiar with the chart that will be used. If the watch is at night, the watch officer should read and sign the night orders and allow time for vision adjustment. The changeover of the watch shall be thorough before the course is repeated; this officially transfers the watch. There should be a checkoff list which both the ongoing and relieving watch officers should sign. This checkoff list should be similar to table 1-2. Another type of checkoff list used by the Maersk Line is shown in table 1-3. STANDING THE WATCH For standing the watch the watch officer must comply with the vessel's standing orders. There are many examples of standing orders from various shipping companies around the world. Appendix B was compiled using many of the standing orders in the author's experience and that of Captain Richard Beadon. Captain Beadon, who assists at the bridge watchstanding course ofthe U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, developed these bridge standing orders for the simulated vessel SS Capella, a 30,000 CHAPTER TWO Bridge Equipment NLIKE aircraft cockpits, the one thing common about merchant • ship bridges is the nonstandardization of equipment. Years ago merchant ship bridges had a lot of brasswork, and the equipment Was relatively basic and simple to operate. As a result of the rapid development of technical equipment, modem merchant bridges now display a high degree of automation. The objectives of this automation, in addition to reduced crews, are to reduce workload, display relevant information, and facilitate automatic controls. As soon as possible after joining a ship and before taking over the first watch, a watch officer (OOW) must become familiar with all bridge and associated chart room equipment, its use, operation, capability, and limitations. Instructions and manuals issued with the equipment must be studied and closely followed. Since models of bridge equipment vary with the manufacturer, there are a variety of different operational procedures. What follows is a general description of the equipment and guidelines to be followed. U RADAR Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) is a method to determine distance and direction of objects by sending out a beam of microwave radio energy and detecting the returned reflections. The OOW must keep in mind that radar is more accurate as a ranging device than as a bearing device. Radar is a tremendous advantage both as a navigation aid and as an anticollision device. It can be used in all conditions of visibility, but is particularly useful in poor visibility and at night. Fixes can be obtained rapidly and anticollision solutions can provide tremendous peace of mind to the OOW. Radar can also be used to locate and track squall lines and other heavy weather. In avoiding collisions the importance of visual bearings cannot be overstressed. Visual bearings and radar ranges provide the best early assessment of the possibility of a threat to a vessel. One radar must 17 18 Bridge Equipment Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer be on for early detection. A second radar should be on at a close range scale. Range scales must be appropriate for the circumstances. When a pilot is embarked it is important for the OOW to ensure that one radar is available for the pilot and the other is available for the master/OOW. The OOW must be aware of the possibility of shadow sectors due to the ship's superstructure. A change of course can unveil these areas for radar detection. No matter how good a radar is, its value as an aid will be entirely dependent upon the person who operates it. The OOW must be fully conversant with the radar's capabilities and limitations in order to understand and interpret the radar picture correctly. It is important to carry out radar practice in clear weather whenever possible in order to obtain the confidence and routine that is necessary for proper use of radar in restricted visibility. Information obtained from the radar must be used so that early steps can be taken to prevent any risk of collision from arising. The use of radar does not under any circumstances relieve the navigator of the obligation to maneuver in a seamanlike manner according to the provisions of Rules 2 and 19 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS). Instructions in the use of various radars should be formal. After formalized instruction the OOW, using the instruction manual, must become proficient in the operation of radar and automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA) (figs. 2-1, 2-2, 2-3) so that this vital equipment may be utilized to its maximum capability. As radars become more automated with the daylight display of Rasterscan (fig. 2-4), it will be even more important for watch officers to keep abreast by continuing education and experience in professional practice. SATELLITE Fig. 2-1. NOR CONTROL radar NAVIGATOR As a general rule each satellite (or bird) will yield four fixes a day- two on successive orbits each 12 hours-when between 15° and 75° above the horizon. Fixes are more frequent at higher latitudes as all orbits are closer and on some passes the bird may be too high or low for an acceptable solution. Usually there are five satellites in use and ideally a satnav fix could be obtained every 90 minutes. Orbital precession, however, will cause the intervals to be irregular. Fig. 2-2. Racal-Decca ARPA 19 20 Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer Bridge Equipment 21 Fig. 2-5. Magnavox satellite navigator Fig. 2-3. Raytheon ARPA Fig. 2-4. Racal-Decca Rasterscan displaying range (6 miles), range rings (1 mile each), bearing (080.0), and distance (1.23 miles) This instrument (fig. 2-5) is a very reliable and accurate (within 0.1 mile on a moving vessel) aid to navigation. However, where circumstances permit, satnav positions should be checked against other reliable sources for comparison and only authorized service reps should be utilized if equipment needs repair. GPS (Global Positioning System) or Navstar is a second generation satellite navigation system. It will soon be in place to provide continuous worldwide coverage with a higher degree of accuracy and reliability. Even with its high degree of reliability and accuracy the satnav cannot be totally relied upon. An illustration of this was the grounding of a containership in the Strait of Malacca in 1981. The OOW, while lighted aids were flashing all about his vessel on a dark clear night, was obtaining fixes based on satnav readout. These devices are nothing more than TOMs (totally obedient morons) and are no better or worse than their operators. Whenever possible the vessel's position shall be fixed by visual bearings (actual bearings taken from the wing repeaters). Care is needed in transferring satnav positions to the chart. British admiralty charts give a "caution" with correction factors for this purpose. Satnav receivers will give a continually updated readout based on the last fix, updated by courses steered and the ship's log. As the gyro and log can have errors and no allowance is made for tidal stream, leeway, drift, or 22 Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer Bridge Equipment current, this position must be used with caution and with regard to the time interval since the last fix. ECHO SOUNDER (FA THO METER) This instrument produces an undelWater sound pulse and measures the elapsed time until return of an echo which is received by a microphone. The depth, in feet, meters, or fathoms, is interpreted according to an equation (depth = speed x 1/2 time interval between sound pulse and echo) and then displayed on an indicator. Displays include rotary flashing light, electrical meter, digital readout, or bottom profile. Whatever the display, it is essential that the OOW be certain what unit of measure and range is being used (fig. 2-6). This instrument should be used whenever the ship navigates in waters where the depths make it serviceable and where the safe navigation of the ship requires it. Where the ship carries a depth recorder with an alarm, the echo sounder should be used when navigating in narrow waters and in all other circumstances where the depth of water makes it a useful aid that may increase the safe navigation of the ship. The echo sounder is not used to its maximum capability aboard the bridges of most merchant vessels. It can be very useful in an approach to port or when making a landfall where there are distinct depth contours, such as the lOa-fathom curve, that can give an OOW an excellent line of position (LOP). This LOP can be utilized with a celestial LOP, visual bearing, Loran LOP, and/or radar range to provide an excellent fix. In addition, a line of soundings may be used as an aid in determining a vessel's position. A precaution in taking soundings: these depths on charts are uncorrected for any variation in salinity, density, or temperature. In addition, the quality of the bottom may indicate a different depth than on the chart. If in doubt, the OOW should never hesitate to call the master. Times in GMT when the echo sounder is activated and when it is secured should be noted in the deck logbook. One fathometer should be run continuously at sea when navigating in depths of less than 100 fathoms and the depths should be recorded every half hour. Depths should be taken at the time of each fix and the depth shown on the chart alongside the time of the fix for comparison with the charted depth. The shallow water alarm must be set to whatever depth is necessary to give ample warning of the vessel standing into danger. When comparing soundings from the chart with the fathometer, the user must make allowance for the height of the tide and Fig. 2-6. Above, fathometer; below, fathometer recorder 23 Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer Bridge Equipment the draft of the ship. If the fathometer transducer is forward and the ship has a trim by the stem the watch officer must be aware that the fathometer is showing more than the true depth below the keel at the deepest part of the vessel. operation until at least the year 2000 and may ultimately be replaced by the Navstar (GPS) satellite navigation system.! An OOW should use all available sources and not arbitrarily assume anyone fix is more accurate than another; that is, satnav fix or a celestial fix, or a Loran fix. He or she should never rely on only one means of fixing the vessel's position. 24 LORAN Loran-C responded to a need for a more accurate LOng RAnge Navigation system than Loran-A. It is a pulsed, hyperbolic system that is able to provide position information out to about 1,200 miles by means of ground waves and 3,000 miles or more with sky waves. Loran stations are situated in chains of three or more stations wherein one station is designated as the master station, transmitting master pulses, and the others are secondary stations. The Loran receiver (fig. 2-7) will give a direct readout of the time differences of one or two pairs of stations. Some Loran-C receivers may be coupled to an X-V coordinate converter that will plot the ship's track, but most receivers provide a direct readout of latitude and longitude. Accuracies of ground waves vary from 50-300 feet within 200 miles to 500-1,700 feet when 1,000 miles from the master station of the pair. The existing Loran-C system is expected to remain in 25 DECCA Decca (fig. 2-8) is a British hyperbolic navigation system using phase comparison to determine difference of distances from the transmitters, rather than the pulse travel times in the low-frequency (LF) band. Each chain consists of one master station and three slaves; each slave optimally being equally spaced around the master station on a circle with a radius of70 to 80 miles. For identification the three slaves are designated purple, red, and green. The four frequencies in a chain have a ratio of 5,6,8, and 9 in the 70-130 kc band. Within lanes, lane identification signals are transmitted every 20 seconds. Zones consist of 18 green lanes, 24 red lanes, and 30 purple lanes and each zone, by color, is assigned a letter from A through J which runs clockwise or counterclockwise from the baseline extension. Every ten zones the lettering is repeated. Decca lines are printed in colors, according to each slave station, on charts. To obtain a fix the OOW reads the three dials, decometers, and locates the intersection of the two or three lines indicated. The range of Decca is approximately 250 miles with an accuracy of about 150 yards in the day and 800 yards at night. Coverage of Decca extends over much of Western Europe, the Canadian Maritime Provinces, Australian waters, the Persian Gulf, and Indian waters. Since this aid to navigation is only used in these areas, it is of paramount importance that watch officers refer to the instruction manuals and refamiliarize themselves with the receivers, procedures, and charts utilized for Decca fixes prior to transiting these waters. The latest Deccas have accuracies better than those mentioned above and give a direct readout of latitude and longitude obviating the need for special overprinted charts. Such receivers also allow programming of waypoints for passage planning. 1. Elbert S. Maloney, ed. Dutton's Navigation and Piloting (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Fig. 2-7. Loran Press, 1985).