Tài liệu Viability assessment of jurisdictional reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation redd implementation in vietnam

Viability assessment of jurisdictional Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) implementation in Vietnam Dissertation with the aim of achieving a doctoral degree at the Faculty of Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences Department of Biology of Universität Hamburg Submitted by Prem Raj Neupane from Nepal Hamburg, 2015 Day of oral defense: 07.10.2015 The following evaluators recommended the admission of the dissertation: Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Michael Köhl Co-supervisor: Prof. Dr. Elisabeth Magel ii Dedicated to all 2015 earthquake victims in Nepal iii Declaration I hereby declare, on oath, that I have written the present dissertation by my own and have not used other than the acknowledged resources and aids. Hamburg, 16 July 2015 ……………………………………….. (Prem Raj Neupane) iv v Summary International climate negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) conceive a nationwide approach of performance evaluation and national-level carbon accounting for REDD+. Decisions adopted in the 16th Conference of the Parties (COP16) to the UNFCCC in Cancún, 2010 acknowledged sub-national or jurisdictional approaches, as an interim measure, for REDD+ accounting and monitoring. A jurisdictional approach is the nation-wide approach under which a subnational or provincial government implements and administers REDD+ ensuring compliance with nationally and internationally agreed-upon financial, fiduciary and reporting standards. The study is focusing on Vietnam which is working on multiple phases of REDD+ and is taking action at multiple scales. Vietnam is developing a national REDD+ strategy, building measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) capacity, establishing reference emission levels, and piloting benefit-distribution systems. The country is exploring nested approaches to integrate jurisdictional REDD+ activities into national REDD+ schemes. Jurisdictional REDD+ implementation (JRI) involves both state and non-state actors (local governments, non-profit/governmental organizations, indigenous peoples’ organizations) and opens the door for private-sector engagement in REDD+. For the JRI, the government needs to identify potential jurisdictions and decide upon priority areas. In addition, whether realistic jurisdictional REDD+ implementation is achievable from technical, operational, financial and policy perspective, needs to be analyzed and evaluated before the decision for a specific jurisdiction is made. To inform such decision making, this study attempts to evaluate the viability of the jurisdictional REDD+ implementation in Dinh Hoa, Vietnam. Dinh Hoa is a mountainous district inhabited largely by ethnic minorities and is deeply poverty stricken. In the district, forestry is major land use and 70% of the total forest area is managed by households. Based on designated ecological function, forests are classified as Special use, Protection and Production forests in Vietnam. The district possesses all the forest types, and is rich in natural forest formations and biodiversity. The study provides an understanding of JRI feasibility in a jurisdiction (i.e. the Dinh Hoa district) and suggests potential REDD+ activities in household-based forestry - a major forest management regime in Vietnam. The research examined the viability of the jurisdictional REDD+ implementation as a combination of technical, operational, financial and political aspects using multiple methods and analytical techniques. The study conducted ground-based forest inventories to estimate carbon stocks in forests. Besides biomass and carbon densities for the different forest types, the study provides data on soil organic carbon, litter and understorey carbon pools, which is currently scarce in Vietnam. Forest cover change was assessed using remote sensing and geographic information systems. Based on findings of the forest inventories and forest cover change analysis, technically feasible REDD+ activities were identified. The study used household surveys to assess the perception and attitude of local households towards forest management, forest land allocation and REDD+. Forest use-rights, tenure, and willingness and capacity of the forest owners to participate in REDD+ were assessed. Outcomes of the assessments were used to evaluate operational feasibility and local acceptability of the JRI. Net present value (NPV) and benefitcost ratio (BCR) were used to measure financial viability of natural forests and planted forest management. A rigorous desk review of national legal and regulatory frameworks and institutional arrangements for REDD+ implementation was conducted to explore whether the frameworks and the arrangements are supportive for operationalizing jurisdictional REDD+. vi In the household-based forest management (HBFM) regime, subsistence households were managing small and fragmented patches of forests with differing forest carbon stocks. From technical perspective, conservation of forest carbon stocks through protection of existing forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks- through restoration of degraded forest lands with assisted natural regeneration would be promising REDD+ activities for Protection forests and Special use forests. A recent trend of conversion of degraded natural forests to planted forests indicates sustainable management of forests through enrichment planting, and reducing emissions from deforestation through avoided planned deforestation might be further activities to be considered. The study suggests estimation of emission factors and preparation of reference emission levels for each activity; and calculation of corresponding financial values for explicit determination of REDD+ activities. Benefit-cost ratio of greater than one and NPV of benefits of US$25 per ha per year revealed householdbased natural forest management is economically feasible in Vietnam. The NPV indicates opportunity costs of forest conservation under REDD+ to the household. This implies that carbon markets under a REDD+ mechanism may entail high opportunity costs compared with the current carbon price in international market. JRI might be financially attractive to the households, if it provides incomes additional to the current income from the forest management under the HBFM. Moreover, the HBFM enhanced small-holders’ access to external finance, increased employment opportunities and promoted cross-sectoral linkage between forestry and agriculture, which are key for sustainable management of forests. Jurisdictional REDD+ implementation is politically acceptable and compliant with requirements of national legal and regulatory frameworks, UNFCCC REDD+ process, and other relevant processes, such as Verified Carbon Standard. The Vietnamese multi-tiered and partially decentralized institutional arrangements for REDD+ implementation are in principle highly supportive to a jurisdictional REDD+ approach. The arrangement constitutes a network of institutions with substantial decentralization of fiscal, administrative and monitoring authorities from national level authorities to province and district level authorities of REDD+ implementation. However, low level of knowledge and understanding about REDD+ among local stakeholders is an impediment for the JRI. Capacity of all state and non-state actors, particularly of ethnic minority groups, and forest-adjacent/dependent households needs to be strengthened to enhance their complete and effective participation in program design and implementation, benefit sharing, as well as safeguards design and monitoring. The small-holders showed positive perception towards the household-based forest management regime and positive attitudes to forest land allocation and REDD+ initiatives. Positive perceptions and attitudes on conservation initiatives are good indicators for the sustainability of a REDD+ mechanism and indicate the likelihood that the local residents will continue to be involved in the implementation of the regime. Participation of local stakeholders is considered as building block for efficiency of REDD+ and its success which depends on its legitimacy. The substantive participation of the households and state-actors in the forest management regime encouraged an inclusive and informed decision-making process. Long-term land tenure, secured and explicit forest-use rights, mutually understood and respected roles and responsibilities, and accessible institutions and processes ensured traditional, legal and local legitimacy. vii Thus, jurisdictional REDD+ implementation is conceptually feasible and operational, provided that REDD+ activities are coherent to and embrace the concomitant policies, programs and practices. This is equally important for political adoption and local legitimacy of REDD+ at local level. The study suggested jurisdictional REDD+ implementation is technically feasible, operationally achievable, financially viable, and politically acceptable. However, to achieve fully operational JRI, REDD+ activities should be additional to and embedded into concomitant forest management and land use policies and programs at jurisdictional levels. viii Acknowledgements Most professors teach students how to find right answers. The ‘GURU’ ('गरू ु ') has been teaching me how to ask the right questions since few years. The questions guided by his remarkable mentoring, inspiring counselling and patience to keep me moving forward, made an ordinary student to stand on the verge of a doctoral degree. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my गरू ु and supervisor Prof. Dr. Michael Köhl. I am especially grateful for his confidence and the freedom he gave me to do this work. My sincere gratitude goes to Prof. Dr. Elisabeth Magel for her willingness to be second supervisor for this thesis. My special thanks to Prof. Dr. Jürgen Pretzch and Prof. Dr. Peter Dart for their scholarly guidance in the beginning of my research career. Dr. Joachim Krug, you introduced me with Prof. Köhl and to World Forestry, Hamburg. You have been a mentor, a colleague, and a sincere friend. Not enough words to thank you!!!. My sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Do Anh Tai, without your support, our work in Vietnam would not be as smooth as it is. Thanks to you, Prof. Dr. Lan and entire family for your generous support and hospitality, which always made me feel at home. Dr. Thomas Schneider, thank you for always appreciating my work that helped me to work harder and keep moving. It has been great to work with you. Prof. Dr. Dang Van Minh, thank you for the guidance and support during my field work. My sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Tran Dai Nghia for your coordination and support. It was not possible to conduct a study on land use and land cover change without contributions from Vũ Tiến Điển and Thu-Huong Luong. Dr. Daniel Plugge, your guidance and support meant a lot for this thesis. I am grateful to you. I would like to thank Mr Hung and other colleagues of laboratory of Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry for their tireless support during lab-work. Mr Tran Quang Dieu, a key member of my research team, deserves a million thanks. I would like to thank Mr Tu, Mr Cuong, Mr Phê, Mr Hưng and Mr Trang for their support during forest inventory. My sincere thanks to Mr Khiem, Mr Ha, Mr Dzung, Mr Thuan and Mrs Thi Thanh Ha Nguyen for their support and company during my stay in Vietnam. Dear Tung, Hanh and Juniors, thank you for the wonderful moments. Time spent in Orange is memorable. Thank you Mr Hong Ngoc Y, Vietnam Forestry University for being always there for any support I need. I am grateful to Daniel Kübler for being always available for resolving any of my statistical queries related to R. It was always fun to irritate you- my Göttingeli friend Philip Mundhenk, with stupid stat questions. Konstantin, you have helped me through my most stressful time. You have been very good friend, exceptional flat mate and wonderful colleague. Frau Doris Wöbb, you have been always accessible and supportive to me and to all international students. My sincere gratitude to you. Kai Timo Schönfeld, Volker Mues, Bernhard Kenter, Manuela Kenter, Sheila Zamora, Sybille Wöbb, Sabine Kruse, Stefanie Stenner and Neda Lotfiomran - always have been great to work with you. Jutta Lax and Margret Köthke, I enjoyed working with you in Nepal and in Hamburg. Thank you Mr Kulow for your instant IT support. Giulio di Lallo, Vlad Strîmbu, Christian Hack, Sebastian Gräfe and Laura Prill, I enjoyed working with you. ix I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Dr. Tek Maraseni, Prof. Dr. Arne Pommerening, Dr. Uwe Muuss, Prof. Dr. Klaus von Gadow and Prof. Dr. Morag McDonald, you people have always inspired me and boosted my self-esteem. I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Irma Mika, Andrew Piper, K. P. Acharya, Devesh Mani Tripathi, Dr. Pham Quoc Hung and Dr. Pham Manh Cuong for your wishes and support. I am obliged to Thünen Institute for World Forestry and University of Hamburg for providing me an opportunity to work in Vietnam. I am highly indebted to colleagues from Dinh Hoa- commune leaders and foresters and entire family of Thai Nguyen University for supporting me for this research and logistics. Local people generously invited a complete stranger to stay for months. Thank you all for your beautiful heart! I am unable to mention each individual in this acknowledgement, but it does not suggest a lack of gratitude and there are none left appreciated. I am indebted to you Jan Eric Voss, a friend for life. You were always there either during my master study or work or my PhD study, you have been my constant support throughout. In you I have found a friend, brother and family, thank you so much for your unconditional friendship!!! Finally, and most importantly, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife Archana, without your continuous proof read of countless pages full of climate jargons and editing assistance; I would not have finished this thesis. Your faith on me and support, encouragement, patience and unwavering love were undeniably the bedrock upon which my life has been built. The completion of my PhD has been a long journey. Thank you Prej for your patience with me, bearing my absence and for the happiness you brought into my life. My families in Chitwan, Kusunti, Tapoban, Damauli, Dettenhausen, Pokhara and FON have been encouraging and supportive. You all are my inspiration for being who I am and where I am!!! साष्ाांग दण्डवत to my parents for their faith on me and blessings. My sincere gratitude to Late Nara Narayan Baba. ॐ नमः शिवाय!!! x Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................iv Summary ....................................................................................................................................vi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... ix Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... xi List of Tables............................................................................................................................. xvi List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xix List of Annexes ....................................................................................................................... xxiii Acronyms ............................................................................................................................... xxiv 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Role of tropical forests for global socio-economic and ecological prosperity ............................... 1 1.1.2 Extent and condition of tropical forests ...................................................................................... 1 1.1.3 Climate change and greenhouse gas concentration .................................................................... 2 1.1.4 Potentials of tropical forests to mitigating climate change .......................................................... 3 1.1.5 Drivers of tropical forests loss and damage................................................................................. 4 1.1.6 Global policy responses .............................................................................................................. 4 1.1.7 Evolution of REDD+ and context of jurisdictional REDD+ implementation ................................... 7 1.2 Theoretical background of the study ................................................................................................ 9 1.3 Scope of the study ......................................................................................................................... 10 1.3.1 Relevance and rise of REDD+ jurisdictional approach ................................................................ 10 1.3.2 Rationale and assumptions of the study ................................................................................... 13 1.3.3 Thesis aims and objectives ....................................................................................................... 14 1.3.4 Implications of the study .......................................................................................................... 14 1.4 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................................................... 15 2 Country context ................................................................................................................. 16 2.1 Country overview .......................................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Forests and forestry in Vietnam ..................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Forest policy discourse ............................................................................................................. 16 2.2.2 Current forest status ................................................................................................................ 18 2.2.3 Forest rehabilitation in Vietnam ............................................................................................... 20 2.3 Context of REDD+ in Vietnam......................................................................................................... 21 xi 2.3.1 REDD+ in the context of climate change mitigation and forest management goals ................... 21 2.3.2 REDD+ and REDD+ readiness .................................................................................................... 22 2.3.3 Institutional arrangement for REDD+ implementation .............................................................. 23 2.4 Forest policies relevant to forest and forestland management in Dinh Hoa district ........................ 25 3 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Study area ..................................................................................................................................... 28 3.2 Research framework ...................................................................................................................... 29 3.3 Forest inventory ............................................................................................................................ 32 3.3.1 Sampling design ....................................................................................................................... 32 3.3.1.1 Sample size ......................................................................................................................... 32 3.3.1.2 Preparation of forest inventory maps .................................................................................. 33 3.3.1.3 Locating sample plots on forest inventory maps .................................................................. 35 3.3.1.4 Design of inventory plot ...................................................................................................... 35 3.3.1.5 Plot expansion factor .......................................................................................................... 36 3.3.2 Locating sample plots and plot center marking ......................................................................... 36 3.3.3 Sample plot information ........................................................................................................... 36 3.3.4 Stand information .................................................................................................................... 38 3.3.5 Tree information ...................................................................................................................... 39 3.3.6 Collection of litter, understory green biomass and soil samples ................................................ 41 3.3.6.1 Litter ................................................................................................................................... 41 3.3.6.2 Understorey green biomass ................................................................................................ 42 3.3.6.3 Soil samples for estimation of bulk density and soil organic carbon concentration .............. 42 3.3.7 Sample processing in laboratory ............................................................................................... 43 3.3.7.1 Litter and understorey green biomass ................................................................................. 43 3.3.7.2 Replicates for soil bulk density measurement...................................................................... 43 3.3.7.3 Composites (soil sub-samples) for the determination of soil organic carbon content........... 44 3.3.8 Calculation of tree attributes .................................................................................................... 45 3.3.9 Estimation of soil organic carbon .............................................................................................. 48 3.3.10 Estimation of forest carbon stock ........................................................................................... 49 3.3.11 Data analysis .......................................................................................................................... 49 3.4 Land use/forest cover change ........................................................................................................ 50 3.5 Perception and attitude of local households towards forest management, forest land allocation and REDD+ ................................................................................................................................................. 54 3.6 Economic viability of forest management ...................................................................................... 56 4 Results and discussions: forest inventory .......................................................................... 59 4.1 Number of stems ........................................................................................................................... 59 4.2 Distribution of stems according to tree size classes ........................................................................ 60 xii 4.3 Average tree .................................................................................................................................. 61 4.4 Species of trees ............................................................................................................................. 62 4.5 Volume .......................................................................................................................................... 63 4.6 Above ground biomass .................................................................................................................. 65 4.7 Below ground root biomass ........................................................................................................... 67 4.8 Forest carbon ................................................................................................................................ 68 4.8.1 Distribution of forest carbon stocks among carbon pools ......................................................... 68 4.8.2 Distribution of carbon stocks among carbon pools in natural and planted forests ..................... 69 4.8.3 Distribution of carbon stocks among carbon pools in Production, Protection, and Special use forests .............................................................................................................................................. 71 4.8.4 Soil organic carbon ................................................................................................................... 73 4.8.5 Soil organic carbon and locality factors ..................................................................................... 74 4.9 Discussions .................................................................................................................................... 76 5 Results and discussions: land use/land cover change ....................................................... 81 5.1 Dinh Hoa district comprised of a mosaic of diverse landscapes ...................................................... 81 5.2 Forests cover majority of land area of Dinh Hoa district ................................................................. 81 5.3 Total forest area has been increased ............................................................................................. 82 5.4 Natural forest area soaring upwards until 2006, but backsliding in recent years............................. 83 5.5 Increasing forest plantations- with differing increment rate (area) for different periods corresponding to different policy instruments ..................................................................................... 83 5.6 Exponentially increasing forest plantations contributing net gain in forest area ............................. 84 5.7 Increasing plantation area at the expense of non-forested land and degraded natural forests ....... 85 5.8 Decline in non-forested land area .................................................................................................. 90 5.9 Forest dominated by low growing stock Evergreen Broadleaf Regrowth forest and Mixed Wood and Bamboo forest..................................................................................................................................... 90 5.10 Forest ecosystems are evenly distributed throughout the district; distribution of particular forest formations (types) are localized to particular geographic area of the district ....................................... 91 5.11 Period of restoration of bare land and plantation initiation: 1993 - 2000 ..................................... 92 5.12 Period of transformation of bare and other land to forest plantations, and restoration of natural forests: 2000 - 2006 ............................................................................................................................. 92 5.13 Period of escalating forest plantations and reducing natural forests: 2006 - 2010 ........................ 93 5.14 Discussions .................................................................................................................................. 94 6 Result and discussions: perception and attitude of local residents towards forest management, forest land allocation and REDD+ ...................................................................... 97 6.1 Characteristics of sample households ............................................................................................ 97 6.2 Perception of local people towards forest management and forest land allocation ...................... 105 xiii 6.2.1 Increased forest cover, forest lands meet subsistence demand and are suitable for forestry activities ......................................................................................................................................... 105 6.2.2 Provision of forest products considerably increased and forest services improved ................. 105 6.2.3 Floral and faunal diversity increased and ecologically sensitive areas protected ..................... 105 6.2.4 Illegal logging reduced, premature and uncontrolled felling and grazing decreased ................ 106 6.2.5 More time available for other household activities ................................................................. 106 6.2.6 Increased and additional green and local jobs ........................................................................ 106 6.2.7 Increased awareness and improved knowledge and skills for forest management .................. 106 6.2.8 Participation on forest management and trust among stakeholders increased ....................... 107 6.2.9 Mechanisms for benefits sharing and work-obligations have become fair and equitable ........ 107 6.2.10 Increased availability of materials and methods for forest management activities ................ 108 6.2.11 Enhanced access to external finance and improved forest product market contributed financially to forest management .................................................................................................... 108 6.2.12 Valuation agreed forest management and forest land allocation have desirable impacts on local livelihood ................................................................................................................................ 108 6.3 Local awareness and willingness to participate in REDD+ in Dinh Hoa .......................................... 109 6.4 Discussions .................................................................................................................................. 110 7 Results and discussions: economics of forest management in Dinh Hoa .........................112 7.1 Forest landholding and forest products demand and collection ................................................... 112 7.2 Benefits and costs of natural forest management ........................................................................ 113 7.2.1 Benefit-cost ratio.................................................................................................................... 113 7.2.2 Sensitivity analysis .................................................................................................................. 114 7.3 Benefits and costs of planted forest management ....................................................................... 115 7.3.1 Benefit-cost ratio.................................................................................................................... 115 7.3.2 Sensitivity analysis.................................................................................................................. 116 7.4 Discussions .................................................................................................................................. 116 8 Discussions .......................................................................................................................118 8.1 Technical feasibility ..................................................................................................................... 118 8.2 Operational feasibility.................................................................................................................. 120 8.2.1 Existing forest management practices and forest land allocation program contributed to conversion of non-forest land to forest land and enhanced protection of regrowth forests ............. 120 8.2.2 Long-term land tenure and secured forest use-rights encouraged households for the conversion ....................................................................................................................................................... 121 8.2.3 Willingness of local households to engage in forest protection and development practices .... 122 8.2.4 Willingness and capacity of local households to participate in REDD+ mechanism .................. 123 8.3 Financial viability ......................................................................................................................... 124 8.4 Political feasibility ........................................................................................................................ 126 xiv 9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................130 References...............................................................................................................................134 Annexes ...................................................................................................................................146 List of publications ..................................................................................................................155 xv List of Tables Table 2.1 Forest area according to forest types classified based on designated ecological functions in Vietnam. Each type is represented with forest area (in 2011), proportion of the area to the total forest area in the country and designated ecological functions of the forests. .................................................. 18 Table 3.1 Characteristics of the study area. ............................................................................................ 28 Table 3.2 Distribution of sample plots in different forest types and communes. ..................................... 32 Table 3.3 Distribution of the total sample plots in selected communes under study. .............................. 35 Table 3.4 Plot radius and corresponding trees to be measured. Radius and area of sample plot, classification of trees, specification for measurement and tree attributes are shown. ............................ 36 Table 3.5 Level of wood specific density used. Reference level of wood specific density values, and number of species are shown................................................................................................................. 47 Table 3.6 Carbon pools included in the study. Carbon pools suggested by IPCC good practice guidance, carbon pools included in the study and description of the carbon pools are shown. ............................... 49 Table 3.7 Remote sensing data used in the study collected for land use/forest cover change detection in Dinh Hoa. Description of satellite and sensors, acquisition year and spatial resolution are given. ........... 50 Table 3.8 Selected villages, area of allocated forest lands, year of forest land allocation, number of the total households, and distribution of households for questionnaire survey. ........................................... 54 Table 3.9 Description of costs of forest management in Dinh Hoa. ......................................................... 57 Table 4.1 Mean stem density (N/ha) and its descriptive statistics. Sample size, mean stem density, standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE) and confidence interval (CI) are given for different tree forms and forest types, classified based on mode of forest origin and designated ecological function. ... 59 Table 4.2 Number of tree species and family recorded for trees of dbh ≥5cm. Number of family and tree species according to forest types, classified based on designated ecological function and mode of forest origin, and number of sample plots in each forest type are given. .......................................................... 62 Table 4.3 Mean stem volume (m3/ha) for each forest type in Dinh Hoa. Mean volume and its descriptive statistics: sample size, standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE) and confidence interval (CI) are given for different forest types, classified based on designated ecological function and mode of forest origin. 63 Table 4.4 Distribution of above ground biomass (t/ha) in different biomass pools corresponding to different forest types in Dinh Hoa. Above ground tree biomass, understorey biomass and biomass in litter are presented. Mean biomass density (t/ha) and its descriptive statistics: sample size, standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE) and confidence interval (CI) are given for different forest types. ...... 65 Table 4.5 Distribution of carbon stock (t/ha) in different forest carbon pools. Mean carbon density (t/ha) and its descriptive statistics: sample size, standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE) and confidence interval (CI) are given for different forest carbon pools. ......................................................................... 68 Table 4.6 Distribution of carbon stock (t/ha) in different forest carbon pools in natural forests and planted forests. Mean carbon density (t/ha) and its descriptive statistics: sample size, standard deviation xvi (SD), standard error (SE) and confidence interval (CI) are given for different forest carbon pools of natural forests and planted forests. ................................................................................................................... 70 Table 4.7 Distribution of carbon stock (t/ha) in different forest carbon pools in Production, Protection, and Special use forests. Mean carbon density (t/ha) and its descriptive statistics: sample size, standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE) and confidence interval (CI) are given for different forest carbon pools of the forests. ........................................................................................................................................ 72 Table 4.8 Relationships between soil organic carbon density and factors of locality in Dinh Hoa. Locality factors, sample size (n), degree of freedom (f), chi-squared statistics and P-value are shown. ................ 74 Table 5.1 Land use/land cover (LULC) and forest types found in Dinh Hoa district. LULCs are shown under two broader categories: forested land and non-forested land. The LULCs including forest types are mentioned in English and Vietnamese.................................................................................................... 81 Table 5.2 Land use/land cover (LULC) and forest types, and their corresponding area (ha) in Dinh Hoa district, Vietnam. LULCs and forest types in Dinh Hoa, notation used to describe them and their corresponding area (ha) for the year of 1993, 2000, 2006 and 2010 are given. ....................................... 82 Table 5.3 Land-use/land cover change matrix: 1993 - 2000 .................................................................... 92 Table 5.4 Land-use/land cover change matrix: 2000 - 2006 .................................................................... 93 Table 5.5 Land-use/land cover change matrix: 2006 - 2010 .................................................................... 94 Table 6.1 Frequency distribution of categorical responses. Categorical variables, description (and responses) to the variables and frequency of the variables and responses are given. ............................. 98 Table 6.2 Descriptive statistics for continuous variables. Continuous variables and their sample statistics: mean, standard deviation (Std. dev.), minimum (Min.) and maximum (Max.) values, standard error of the mean (SE), confidence interval (CI) and total number of observation (Obs.) are given. ........................... 99 Table 6.3 Households’ perception towards forest management and forest land allocation (FLA) and their perception towards impacts of the forest management and FLA on their livelihoods. Livelihood capitals, statements related to each capital, and households’ agreement or disagreement to the statements (in percent) are shown. ............................................................................................................................. 102 Table 6.4 Local awareness on REDD+ and payment for ecosystem services program. Statements on the awareness, local responses and their frequencies are shown. .............................................................. 109 Table 7.1 Yearly demand of forest products and collection of forest products (in 2012) by individual households in Dinh Hoa. Types of forest products and sample statistics: mean, standard deviation (Std. dev.), minimum (Min.) and maximum (Max.) values, standard error of the mean (SE), confidence interval (CI) and total number of observation (Obs.) are given. ......................................................................... 112 Table 7.2 Recurrent costs and benefits of natural forest management in Dinh Hoa. Types of costs and benefits and amounts (US$) are given. ................................................................................................. 113 Table 7.3 Present values of costs and benefits of natural forest management in Dinh Hoa. Types of costs and benefits, associated years and present values (US$) are given. ...................................................... 114 xvii Table 7.4 Benefits and costs of natural forest management under different scenarios in Dinh Hoa. Scenarios and their description, present values of benefits and costs (US$) and benefit-cost ratio of each scenario are given. ............................................................................................................................... 114 Table 7.5 Recurrent costs and benefits of planted forest management (per ha) in Dinh Hoa. Types of costs and benefits and amounts (US$) are given. ................................................................................. 115 Table 7.6 Present value of costs and benefits of planted forest management in Dinh Hoa. Types of costs and benefits, associated years and present values (US$) are given. ...................................................... 115 Table 7.7 Benefits and costs of planted forest management under different scenarios in Dinh Hoa. Scenarios and their description, present values (US$) of benefits and costs and benefit-cost ratio of each scenario are given. ............................................................................................................................... 116 xviii List of Figures Figure 1.1 Products and services provided by forests other than timber: a) shows forest products and services, and their beneficiaries at different levels, and b) shows market-based mechanism for forest services (carbon sequestration and reduction of sedimentation). ............................................................ 9 Figure 2.1 Location of Vietnam. .............................................................................................................. 16 Figure 2.2 Ownership of forest area by forest users in Vietnam (2011). .................................................. 19 Figure 2.3 Land uses, forest formations and forest ecosystems in Vietnam (2011). ................................ 19 Figure 2.4 Vietnam’s forest cover trend (1943 to 2011). ......................................................................... 20 Figure 2.5 National REDD+ readiness landscape of Vietnam. .................................................................. 22 Figure 2.6 Institutional arrangements for REDD+ implementation in Vietnam. ....................................... 24 Figure 3.1 Map showing the study area. ................................................................................................. 30 Figure 3.2 Research framework. ............................................................................................................. 31 Figure 3.3 Procedures of the preparation of forest inventory base maps for the selected communes..... 33 Figure 3.4 Forest inventory base maps showing assessed inventory sample plots in the selected communes of Dinh Hoa district. ............................................................................................................. 34 Figure 3.5 Layout of an inventory plot showing: a) design of forest inventory plot, b) plot centre coinciding with intersection of grid coordinates. r represents radii of nested plots. P1, P2, P3 and P4 are plot 1, plot 2, plot 3 and plot 4 respectively. If P1 and P2, at a distance of r 5 (5.64 m) at cardinal point N, are not accessible, then the plots are established towards E, or S, or W, as shown by dotted lines. ........ 35 Figure 3.6 Vertical layering of forest stands showing simple (Picture 1), two layers (Picture 2 and 3) and complex stand (Picture 4, 5 and 6) structure. ......................................................................................... 38 Figure 3.7 A specimen taken of an unidentified tree species during forest inventory (Diem Mac commune). ............................................................................................................................................ 39 Figure 3.8 Examples of measurement of diameter at breast height of trees standing on different terrain and trees having different forms and conditions. ................................................................................... 40 Figure 3.9 Collection and handling of litter sample: a) collection of litter in a 1 m radius micro plot at sample plot center, b) sub-sample preparation, weighing and labeling, and c) weighing sub-sample...... 41 Figure 3.10 Collection and handling of understorey biomass samples: a) sub-sample preparation, weighing and labeling, b) air-drying before sending the sub-sample to lab, and c) weighing sub-sample in lab. ........................................................................................................................................................ 42 Figure 3.11 Collection of soil samples for estimation of bulk density and soil organic carbon: a) extraction of soil cores (sub-samples) using a soil core sampler, and b) a hole (within red circle) after extracting the third core (20 cm - 30 cm) in the sample plot. ........................................................................................ 42 Figure 3.12 Oven drying soil sub-samples (replicates)............................................................................. 43 xix Figure 3.13 Sample preparation and determination of soil organic carbon (SOC) using CHN analyzer: a) air-drying soil composites, b), c) and d) sample preparation for CHN analyzer, e) a CHN analyzer used for SOC analysis, and f) results shown in a computer monitor. ..................................................................... 44 Figure 3.14 Predictable variables for estimation of above ground tree biomass. .................................... 46 Figure 4.1 Density of trees (dbh ≥5cm) in different forest types. Stem densities of forests are compared between forest types, classified based on a) mode of forest origin, and b) designated ecological function. n indicates sample size........................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 4.2 Distribution of mean number of seedlings, saplings, small trees (5cm ≤ dbh <25 cm), and big trees (dbh ≥25cm) in different forest types. The distribution is shown according to forest types, classified based on a) mode of forest origin, and b) designated ecological function. .............................................. 61 Figure 4.3 Mean of plot wise quadratic mean diameter (QMD) (cm) in different forest types. Medians are shown by horizontal bars inside box plots. The QMD is shown according to forest types, classified based on a) designated ecological function, and b) mode of forest origin. ........................................................ 62 Figure 4.4 Mean and median stem volume of different forest types in Dinh Hoa. Medians are shown by horizontal bars inside box plots. The stem volumes (mean and median) are shown according to forest types, classified based on a) designated ecological function, and b) based on mode of forest origin. ..... 63 Figure 4.5 Mean stem volume of different forest types in Dinh Hoa. Mean stem volumes are shown according to forest types, classified based on a) designated ecological function, and b) mode of forest origin. n indicates number of sample plots assessed for the forest type. ................................................ 64 Figure 4.6 Mean and median of above ground tree biomass density (t/ha) of different forest types. Medians are shown by horizontal bars inside box plots. Means and medians are given according to forest types, classified based on a) designated ecological function, and b) mode of forest origin. .................... 66 Figure 4.7 Mean and median of litter biomass density (t/ha) of different forest types. Medians are shown by horizontal bars inside box plots. Litter biomass means and medians are given according to forest types, classified based on a) designated ecological function, and b) mode of forest origin. .................... 66 Figure 4.8 Mean and median of understorey biomass density (t/ha) of different forest types. Medians are shown by horizontal bars inside box plots. Understorey biomass means and medians are given according to forest types, classified based on designated ecological function (a), and mode of forest origin (b). .... 66 Figure 4.9 Mean root biomass density (t/ha) of different forest types. Root biomass means are shown according to forest types, classified based on a) designated ecological function, and b) mode of forest origin. n indicates number of sample plots assessed for the forest type. ................................................ 67 Figure 4.10 Distribution of above and below ground carbon stocks (t/ha) in different types of forests, classified based on a) mode of forest origin, and b) designated ecological function. ............................... 68 Figure 4.11 Distribution of carbon stock (t/ha) in different forest carbon pools. Soil organic carbon pool contributed 73% to total forest carbon stock. ........................................................................................ 69 Figure 4.12 Mean carbon density (t/ha) of five different carbon pools in Dinh Hoa. Five carbon pools included above ground tree carbon, carbon in understorey biomass, carbon in litter biomass, carbon in root biomass and soil organic carbon. .................................................................................................... 69 xx