Tài liệu Using images in communicative activities to improve students’ retention of english vocabulary in architecture for students at hanoi architectural university

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES **************************************** NGUYỄN THỊ HÒA USING IMAGES IN COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ RETENTION OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY IN ARCHITECTURE FOR STUDENTS AT HANOI ARCHITECTURAL UNIVERSITY (SỬ DỤNG HÌNH ẢNH TRONG HOẠT ĐỘNG GIAO TIẾP ĐỂ NÂNG CAO KHẢ NĂNG LƯU NHỚ TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH KIẾN TRÚC CHO SINH VIÊN TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KIẾN TRÚC HÀ NỘI) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field : English Teaching Methodology Code : 60140111 Hanoi, 2016 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES **************************************** NGUYỄN THỊ HÒA USING IMAGES IN COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ RETENTION OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY IN ARCHITECTURE FOR STUDENTS AT HANOI ARCHITECTURAL UNIVERSITY (SỬ DỤNG HÌNH ẢNH TRONG HOẠT ĐỘNG GIAO TIẾP ĐỂ NÂNG CAO KHẢ NĂNG LƯU NHỚ TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH KIẾN TRÚC CHO SINH VIÊN TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC KIẾN TRÚC HÀ NỘI) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field : English Teaching Methodology Code : 60140111 Supervisor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lâm Quang Đông Hanoi, 2016 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has been accomplished with the support and encouragement of many people. Hence, I hereby would like to express my appreciation to all of them. In the first place, I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor - Assoc. Prof. Lâm Quang Đông, PhD for his valuable assistance and guidance during the time I made efforts to carry out my research. Also, I would highly appreciate all professors and staffs of the Faculty of PostGraduate Studies for their meaningful lessons and precious support thanks to which I was able to overcome obstacles during the time my research was carried out. Besides, I would like to give my whole-hearted thanks to students at Hanoi Architectural University for their enthusiastic participation in my research. Without their help, I would not have been able to complete this paper. Last but not least, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my beloved family whose support and encouragement have always been a great deal of motivation that has helped me to ovecome all problems to complete my thesis. Hanoi, Nguyễn Thị Hòa i ABSTRACT This study was carried out in the form of an action research in which students were instructed with the use of images in their vocabulary lessons. The research aimed first to figure out whether the use of images in vocabulary teaching could help improve students‟ vocabulary retention and then to investigate students‟ perspectives towards the use of images in vocabulary lessons. In order to accomplish these purposes, 20 sophomores at Hanoi Architectural University were selected to participate in the study, which last for eight weeks. Three data collection instruments were employed, namely pre-test/post-tests, class observation and interviews in order to have data triangulation to achieve most reliable findings for the research. Findings from the tests, observation and interviews revealed that students had experienced an improvement in their vocabulary memorization throughout the eight weeks of study and the reason for the vocabulary retention progress was mainly attributed to the use of images in language classroom. Benefits of using images can be listed as the deeper impression of vocabulary on students‟ memory and a more frequently exposure to vocabulary use. Results from the interviews and observation also reflected a completely positive attitude of students towards the use of images, claiming that visuals helped them have more fun and motivation in learning. On this basis, some implications for teachers‟ preparation, classroom practices and future research were proposed. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ i ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ..........................................................................................iii LIST OF FIGURES AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................. v PART A: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 1.Statement of the problem and rationale for the study....................................................... 1 3.Researchquestions ................................................................................................... 2 4.Scope of the study .......................................................................................................... 2 5.The organization of the thesis ......................................................................................... 2 PART B: DEVELOPMENT ..................................................................................... 3 CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................. 3 1.1. Vocabulary learning ........................................................................................ 3 1.1.1. What is vocabulary? ........................................................................................ 3 1.1.2.What is involved in knowing a word? .................................................................. 3 1.1.3. Vocabulary retention ....................................................................................... 4 1.2. Multimodality ................................................................................................. 7 1.2.1. Multimodality and the English language teaching ............................................... 7 1.2.2. The application of multimodal teaching to English vocabulary teaching ................ 9 1.3. Review on the use of images in vocabulary teaching ......................................... 10 1.3.1. The use of images as a mode of multimodality in language learning ................... 10 1.3.2. The use of images in vocabulary teaching and its effects on vocabulary retention 11 1.3.3. Types of images used in vocabulary teaching ................................................... 13 1.4. Summary .......................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 18 2.1 Participants and the research context ................................................................. 18 2.2. Research methodology ..................................................................................... 18 2.3. Research methods ........................................................................................... 19 2.3.1. The pre-test and post-test ............................................................................... 20 2.3.2. Class observation .......................................................................................... 21 2.3.3. Interviews .................................................................................................... 22 2.4. Data collection procedure............................................................................... 23 iii 2.5. Summary .......................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS .................................................. 27 3.1. Data analysis and discussion .......................................................................... 27 3.1.1. Effects of using images on students‟ vocabulary retention – findings from pre- and post-tests................................................................................................................. 27 3.1.2. Effects of using images on students‟ vocabulary retention – findings from observation and interviews ....................................................................................... 30 3.1.3. Students‟ perspectives of using images in vocabulary learning – findings from observation and interviews ....................................................................................... 34 3.2. Major findings and discussion .......................................................................... 36 3.3. Implications .................................................................................................... 37 3.4. Summary .......................................................................................................... 38 PART C: CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 39 1. Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 39 2. Limitations of the study and suggestions for further study ........................................ 40 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 42 APPENDIX A .......................................................................................................... I APPENDIX B ......................................................................................................... II APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................ III APPENDIX D ........................................................................................................ VI APPENDIX E ........................................................................................................ IX APPENDIX F ...................................................................................................... XII APPENDIX G ...................................................................................................... XV APPENDIX H .................................................................................................. XVII APPENDIX I.................................................................................................. XXVI iv LIST OF FIGURES AND ABBREVIATIONS FIGURES Figure 1: Scores of pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 .......................................... 27 Figure 2: The overall mean score of students‟ pre-test and post-test 1 ................... 28 Figure 3: The overall mean score of students‟ pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 ................ 29 Figure 4: Students‟ vocabulary retention seen from class observation .................... 31 ABBREVIATIONS EFL : English as a foreign language ESP : English for Specific Purposes v PART A: INTRODUCTION 1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study Vocabulary has always been considered the backbone of a language and the basis of communication, as Hunt and Beglar (2005) put it. They argue that the heart of language comprehension and use is the lexicon, and clarify that the significance of vocabulary in EFL is due to the fact that thoughts and ideas can be expressed without using grammar, but impossibly without words. “Without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (Wikins, 1976:111). Limited vocabulary, therefore, is likely to be a hindrance for learners in their communication. For this reason, vocabulary is highly important to any language, because without enough words used appropriately and in context, people would not be able to understand what others express or state what there is in their own minds. As the importance of mastering vocabulary is evident and obvious, the teaching of vocabulary should always receive sufficient attention. It is important for teachers to realize that learning a new language is not just a memorization process or acquiring new words; it is the connection between the words and their reality. However, the traditional vocabulary teaching techniques in such a way as presenting new words on blackboard together with its phonics, meaning, translation and requiring students‟ memorization of long isolated word lists are still kept in many language classrooms, which leads to the inefficiency of vocabulary acquisition. This urges the researcher to conduct a study to identify an appropriate method in offering students with more effective vocabulary learning. 2. Aims of the study Multimodality has long been proposed by various researchers to be an approach that involves different aspects in interaction, including verbal and written language, pictures, graphics, speech… (Baldry&Thibault, 2006). In the sense of language teaching, multimodality has been proved to be beneficial to students‟ learning process and help stimulate learners with a motivating environment. When applied to 1 the teaching of vocabulary as an aspect of language teaching, multimodality is often discussed from the angle of using visuals in teaching such as images, pictures, graphics, etc. This study, which focuses on vocabulary teaching methods, is going to investigate the application of multimodality to the vocabulary learning of students from the perspectives of using images in some communicative activities to enhance students‟ vocabulary retention. The major aim of the research is to investigate whether the use of images in vocabulary teaching can help improve students‟ vocabulary retention. The participants in the study are students at Hanoi Architectural University. 3. Research questions In an attempt to achieve the above-presented aims, the study sought to answer the following research question: To what extent can the use of images in vocabulary teaching help improve students’ retention of English vocabulary in Architecture for students at Hanoi Architectural University? 4. Scope of the study This research is an investigation into the effectiveness of the use of images on students‟ vocabulary retention in a specific context of students at Hanoi Architectural University. The participants include a group of students (n=20) who were studying English for Specific Purposes at Hanoi Architectural University. 5. The organization of the thesis The thesis is composed of three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Part A – Introduction - introduces the rationale, aims and objectives as well as the research question of the study. Part B – Development includes two chapters: Chapter 1- Literature review presents the theoretical foundations for the whole study and Chapter 2 – Methodology elaborates on the participants, the methodology and methods, the data collection procedure and data analysis including the tests, interviews and class observation. Part C – Conclusion - summarizes all the major points in the study, the limitations of the study and proposes suggestions for further research. 2 PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1. 1.1.1. Vocabulary learning What is vocabulary? So far there have been a lot of definitions of vocabulary. Vocabulary is defined as words in a specific language or freestanding items of language that have meaning (McCarthy, 1990). Ur (1996) defined vocabulary roughly as “the words we teach in the foreign language”. Besides, vocabulary is broadly defined as knowledge of words and word meanings (Lehr et al., 2004). According to Lehr et al., vocabulary is more complicated than this definition suggests. Words not only come in oral forms which include the words that can be recognized and used in listening and speaking, but also in print forms of reading and writing. In addition, word knowledge also comes in two forms: receptive and productive. Receptive vocabulary refers to words that can be recognized in reading and listening. Productive vocabulary indicates words that can be used in speaking and writing (Lehr et. al., 2004). Therefore, vocabulary is understood as knowledge of word spelling, pronunciation, collocations and appropriateness (Nation, 1990). Pyles (1970), from another perspective, confirmed that vocabulary is the focus of language with its sounds and meaning, which interlock to allow us to communicate with one another. As discussed above, vocabulary can be seen in many different ways. Vocabulary refers to words or a set of words in a language or knowledge of words regarding its forms, meanings and how to use it accurately in the context. In other words, vocabulary refers to the words, compounds and idioms in a language that can be used to convey and receive information in oral and written communication. 1.1.2.What is involved in knowing a word? When it comes to vocabulary, it surely is the first step toward learning a foreign language. A sentence is usually made up of numerous words. Without any concepts of grammar, learners may guess the meaning of a sentence if the vocabulary is 3 comprehensible to them. Likewise, learners of a foreign language are likely to get their messages across by putting all the words together, even though not in a grammatical, correct order. Therefore, vocabulary serves as the foundation for language learners in communication. However, mastering numerous vocabulary lists to use in communication is not always easy for language learners. For some students, vocabulary has always been one of the obstacles that hinder their English learning. Learners may have different problems in learning vocabulary. Some are capable of recognizing the word in reading but fail to spell it out. Some are able to spell the word out in writing, yet they mispronounce the word in speaking. Still, others can say the word and spell it out perfectly, but surprisingly, they may not know the meaning of the word. Indeed, to learn is one thing; to know is another. In order to know a new word, students need to take great efforts. Nation (2001) pointed out that in order to know a word, many aspects are involved. Nation distinguished vocabulary knowledge into receptive and productive. The former refers to the ability to understand a word while listening or reading. The latter means the ability to use a word in speaking or writing. Sun (2007) introduced an idea that vocabulary gaining develops along a linear continuum, and that the concept denies the dichotomy that vocabulary knowledge is either known or unknown. On the both ends of the continuum are one‟s receptive vocabulary knowledge as well as one‟s productive knowledge. This model assumes that for a word to be a productive one, it must be a receptive one first (Melka, 1997; Palmberg, 1987; Pigott, 1981, as cited in Sun, 2007). 1.1.3. Vocabulary retention One of the significance in vocabulary learning process is not always students‟ comprehending word meaning or spelling, but vocabulary retention. Retention is defined as “the ability to retain facts and figures in memory”. Vocabulary retention, in a similar way, can be referred to as the storage of vocabulary in memory, which becomes available for usage when needed. The efficiency of vocabulary learning can be measured by the extent to which students can remember the words that 4 they‟ve already learned to apply in the productive or receptive language learning. Important as it is, it is worth spending time figuring out the factors that can affect students‟ vocabulary retention. According to different researchers, retention of vocabulary is affected by three following factors: memory, language exposure and effective vocabulary learning strategies. There is a close relationship among these three factors. Memory Nation (1990, as cited in Xiqin, 2008) categorized memory into short-term and long-term memory. According to this researcher, short-term memory is often referred to as the ability to process and remember information at the same time. It holds a small amount of information, typically no more than 7 items in mind in an active, readily-available state for a short period of time (typically from 10 to 15 seconds, or sometimes up to a minute). Long-term memory is intended for storage of information over a long period of time. Unlike short-term memory, which is limited in capacity, long-term memory is seemingly inexhaustible and can accommodate any amount of new information. Despite our everyday impressions of forgetting, it seems likely that long-term memory actually decays very little over time, and can store a seemingly unlimited amount of information almost indefinitely. It can be seen that in order to retain knowledge as much as possible, foreign language learners need all the information of the language that they learned to be transferred into long-term memory. The question is how it can happen? The answer is that short-term memories can become long-term memory through the process of consolidation, involving rehearsal and meaningful association. Unlike short-term memory (which relies mostly on an acoustic, and to a lesser extent a visual, code for storing information), long-term memory encodes information for storage semantically (i.e. based on meaning and association). In other words, the main way of transferring from short-term memory to long-term memory is by finding some 5 pre-existing information in the long-term memory to attach the new information to. Nation (1990) proved that it is impossible to expect students to acquire a word only after one or two times seeing that word, but at least 5 to 16 times of exposure are needed to help students acquire a word (as cited in Xiqin, 2008). In addition, Gairns and Redman (1986) have concluded that for the first time of exposure to new words, students will take those words into their short-term memory. The vocabulary will “fall into disuse if it is not activated regularly” (as cited in Xiqin, 2008). Thorbury (2002) also shares the same opinion, claiming that 80% of materials are lost within 24 hours of initial learning. This is true in both the short term (e.g. from lesson to lesson) and in the long term (e.g. after the whole course). In other words, if we do not revise and practice the knowledge that we learnt, it will soon disappear. Therefore, it can be concluded that after being introduced to students, the vocabulary can only be restored in students‟ short-term memory, and will soon fade away if the process of consolidation, involving rehearsal and meaningful association does not take place. Language exposure While the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of information, language exposure refers more to processes in the initial acquisition or encoding of information. There are many situations that a learner can discover the meaning of a new word or phrase such as: through the written text, through hearing it used, or through other members‟ explanations. However, it can hardly be certain that those vocabulary items and their meanings will be remembered as getting to know the meaning of a new vocabulary item is not the same as remembering that meaning. Joe et al. (1996) gave out three important processes that may lead to vocabulary being retained. These processes can be viewed as attention, the process in which learners need to be aware of needed useful language item (Schmitt and Frota, 1986, Ellis, 1990, cited in Joe et.al, 1996); retrieval – the process after the word is noticed and its meaning comprehended in the textual input to the task, and if that word is subsequently retrieved either receptively or productively during a task, the memory 6 of that word will be strengthened; and generation, the process that leads to a word being remembered. Effective vocabulary learning strategies Vocabulary learning strategies is the third factor contributing to vocabulary retention. Language teachers have been placing great emphasis on teaching English vocabulary. However, the results of mastering vocabulary are not desirable, because words sometimes can be forgotten very easily and won‟t last long. Therefore, it is of great necessity to adopt effective vocabulary learning strategies. Like general learning strategies, English vocabulary learning strategies include those techniques that help learners remember what they have learned - their storage and retention of new information. Identifying effective vocabulary learning strategies is always a controversial issue that attracts a lot of research attention. Politzer and McGroarty (1995, cited in Schmitt, 1997) warn that no strategy should be considered inherently good or bad but it depends on the context in which they are used. The context here is comprised of many variables, including proficiency level, task, text, language modality, background knowledge, context of learning, target language, learner characteristics and culture, etc. It is important that language teacher is well aware of the factors that affect students‟ vocabulary retention and the characteristics of the teaching context so as to have suitable teaching methods to improve it. 1.2. 1.2.1. Multimodality Multimodality and the English language teaching Multimodality means three or more symbols are involved in the interaction, including verbal and written language, picture, graphics, space and other symbol resources which could construct meaning (Baldry&Thibault, 2006). A new term multimodal teaching was put forward in 1996, which creates a precedent of applying multimedia to language teaching. As a new type teaching theory, multimodal teaching is inclined to use all kinds of channels and means to 7 mobilize a variety of senses of students into the process of learning. This kind of teaching approach attaches great importance to students' multiliteracies. Haijing (2015) made a comparison between traditional English teaching and the multimodal one, pointing out some benefits of multimodal one over the traditional one. He claims that a distinctive feature of traditional English teaching classroom is just using chalk and blackboard, sometimes with a tape recorder. Such a kind of instructional mode is quite monotonous and tedious without diversity, which will easily lead to students' fatigue. In traditional instruction, teachers are always pumping and hammering knowledge into students, which makes students receive knowledge passively. In reality, such a circumstance has reversed students' subject position and teachers' dominant position in the process of teaching and learning. Methods of imparting knowledge should not be limited to language modality but including non-language modality, such as gestures, postures, actions, facial expressions and so on. Turning to these symbols is conducive to receive new knowledge for students. It is the appropriate modality that can enhance teaching contents, attract students' attentions and deepen their understandings about teaching materials. In the process of making up multimedia courseware, more and more modalities should be involved, such as texts, pictures, colors, animations, music, videos and so on. Only in this way can better results in teaching be attained. Therefore, in the process of teaching, more modalities should be adopted to supplement teaching and stimulate students' enthusiasm so as to foster their allround abilities. In recent years, with the advent of multimedia and information technology, English class teaching is turning into Multimodal foreign language teaching from the single traditional teaching mode. With the lead of science and technology, modern classroom goes beyond traditional textbook, chalk and blackboard. Multimedia courseware is gradually taking the place of traditional blackboard and adopted by a majority of teachers, especially college English teachers. Multimodal Teaching in English Classroom Teaching can not only mobilize more senses of students to get 8 involved in teaching and learning, but also it can deepen their understandings of new materials and contents. This will finally improve the effectiveness and efficiency of classroom teaching. 1.2.2. The application of multimodal teaching to English vocabulary teaching Multimodal teaching is the supplement and development of traditional teaching. With the advent of a new approach of English vocabulary teaching, that is Multimodal English Vocabulary Teaching, traditional vocabulary teaching is plausibly outdated and cannot meet the needs of modern students. Therefore, it is of great significance for students to adopt a new way to learn English vocabulary well. It is obvious that vocabulary is of great importance. However, traditional way of vocabulary teaching is very much behind the time. Traditionally, vocabulary teaching always follows such steps as: first, teachers read the new word list while students listen to the teachers carefully; second, teachers begin to lead the reading while students read after teachers; third, teachers start to teach the new words while students take notes as they listen to the teachers; last, teachers give their students assignments while students should do all kinds of pattern drills after class to consolidate what teachers taught in class. Students recite new words by rote learning instead of turning to sounds, actions, pictures, colors, etc. to deepen their memory. Traditional students are lacking effective vocabulary learning strategies. Such class teaching is of great tedium, let alone to mobilize a variety of senses of the students taking part in teaching interactivity. Multimodal English vocabulary teaching will compensate the lack of traditional English vocabulary teaching. Combining Multimodal theory with English vocabulary teaching will lead to easy memorization of new words. The combination of Multimodal theory with English vocabulary teaching will definitely help solve some problems existing in English vocabulary teaching. The application of Multimodal theory to English vocabulary teaching is becoming more and more popular. Within the limit of this study, the application of multimodal vocabulary teaching will be discussed from the angle of the use of images. 9 1.3. Review on the use of images in vocabulary teaching 1.3.1. The use of images as a mode of multimodality in language learning Most language teachers seem to agree that the use of images can enhance language teaching. As they help teachers to bring the real world into the classroom, they make learning more meaningful and more exciting (Brinton, 2000). Visual aids can be a helpful tool in the language classroom as Mannan (2005) points out, they „help the teacher to clarify, establish, correlate and coordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations, and enable him to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid‟ (p.108). According to Bamford (2003), it must be taken into account that visual literacy is the key to obtain information, construct knowledge and build successful educational outcomes. He asserts that this is due to the increase of the number of images in the world (as cited in Arif and Hashim, 2009). It is important to point that students bring to the classroom their own background, which nowadays is associated with images provided by mass media, videogames etc. Images or visual materials or anything used to help the student see an immediate meaning in the language may benefit the student and the teacher by clarifying the message, if the visuals enhance or supplement the language point, as CanningWilson (2000) indicates in her work. These advantages suggest that visuals can help make a task or situation more authentic (Canning-Wilson, 1998). Studies carried out by Mukherjee and Roy (2003) have found that the use of images to contextualized spoken speech is a great help for students, given that they can understand 30% more than without the visual support. Following this path, CanningWilson (2000) research suggests that images can be used to enhance the meaning of the message conveyed by the speakers thanks to the paralinguistic cues. Another important thing to note is that images may help in building mental models, and communicate relationships among content objects in a more efficient way than can words alone (Clark and Lyons, 2004). According to Canning-Wilson (1997) the importance of visual aids is highlighted when focusing on the way language is processed. 10 These researchers have concluded that images clarify and enhance students learning, and that this information is recognized and remembered for longer durations than verbal information alone. 1.3.2. The use of images in vocabulary teaching and its effects on vocabulary retention Oxford (1990) defined using imagery as “relating new language information to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery, either in the mind or in an actual drawing.” In the book titled: “Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy”, Norbert Schmitt and Mc.Carthy (1997, as cited in Clark and Lyons, 2004) just wrote, “new words can be learned by studying them with pictures of their meaning instead of definitions.” The image can be a picture of an object, a set of locations for remembering a sequence of words or expressions, or a mental representation of the letters of a word. This strategy can be used to remember abstract words by associating such words with a visual symbol or a picture of a concrete object. Learners can create their own mental images of a word's meaning. Imagery has been shown to be more effective than mere repetition in reading passages and sentences, suggesting it could well be more effective for vocabulary too. New words can also be associated with a particularly vivid personal experience of the underlying concept, for example, a learner mentally connecting the word snow to a memory of playing in the snow while a child.” Students use or create an image that helps them remember information. It can be as simple as a pencil drawing, or as complex as a "mental movie." An image also helps students recall vocabulary without translating from their native language. Complex images can help students check their comprehension; if there are inconsistencies, then they may need to review the information. Using imagery is well suited to any task that involves vivid images or where it is useful to put abstract ideas in concrete form. For instance, in order to remember idiomatic expressions, students create funny pictures that illustrate them. Early researchers such as Adam and Chambers (1962) or Harber and Myers (1982) 11 seem to agree with the idea that memory for picture-word combination is superior to memory for words alone or pictures alone (as cited in Petterson, 2004). Branch and Boom explains that memory for pictures is superior to memory for words and this effect has been called the Pictorial Superiority Effect (as cited in Petterson, 2004). More recent research on visuals and words has shown that memory for visual tends to be better than memory for words (Clark and Lyons, 2004). These researchers have claimed that persuasion tends to be accomplished in both children and adolescents almost exclusively through imagery, and that those images and visuals speak directly to us in the same way experience does: holistically and emotionally. Taking this into account, Piaget and Inhelder (2000) state that young students have little knowledge of the living world and developing conceptions. Therefore they need more visual information to represent their thoughts (as cited in Arif and Hashim, 2009). They also claim that human beings develop their visual language skills before verbal language development, which serves as the foundation for the last one. This is a possible explanation for the need of pictorial information rather than textual among young students (Arif and Hashing 2009). They had already explained this with his theory based on the idea that cognitive growth is stimulated by the balance between verbal and visual experiences in the early stages of learning. Arif and Hashim (2006) research proves that pictures gained better attention than words, and among young learners, pictures became the main clue in interpreting the meaning of the words. Clark and Lyons (2004) explain that in the process of learning, two different types of memories are involved: working memory and long-term memory. The new information is stored in the working memory which is claimed to be the center of active mental work, including the learning. When the visual and phonetic information is received then it is organized to form a cohesive idea. Finally this idea must be integrated with active prior knowledge from long-term memory. As it is seen, the two memories work together in complementary ways, to form what is 12 called an updated mental model that will be stored in long-term memory, where it lasts indefinitely (Clark and Lyons, 2004). The virtual capacity of the working memory is affected by how much related the knowledge of the long-term memory is with the domain studied. The more it is related, the more is the virtual capacity. Taking into account that in a learning environment this related knowledge may not be too much, cognitive overload can take place if the working memory cannot process all the new information during learning. In order to avoid this cognitive overload the two subcomponents of the working memory should be used in their best way. One of these subcomponents is specialized in visual input and the other one in auditory input. For example, if a graphic is explained by words presented in audio, learning the new information is better than if the words are presented in text (Clark and Lyons, 2004,) The mental models that have been mentioned before are the schemas stored in the long-term memory and are the basis of thinking, and images are claimed to help build them. Visual aids help learners store information in long-term memory and make learning more meaningful for students (McLeod, 2007). An interesting example is a study on the use of visual art in German courses (Knapp, 2012). “For twenty-first century students brought up in a society dominated by visuality, paintings provide an immediate connection, inviting them to explore linguistic structures, literary texts, and cultural constructs in memorable ways” (Knapp, 2012, p. 27). Knapp quotes Ortuño's (1994) beliefs about the benefits of using visual art as part of instruction; one of which includes helping students acquire “concrete vocabulary” and helping to illustrate “grammatical concepts” (Knapp, 2012, p.22). Furthermore, according to Ortuño (1994), as cited in Knapp (2012), introducing visual images can lower classroom anxiety and promote “active exploration of the language” (p.20). 1.3.3. Types of images used in vocabulary teaching 1.3.3.1. Picture flashcards Hill (1990, as cited in Jolokva, 2009) classified pictures according to their size into three „key‟ categories: 13