Tài liệu Specialized english in food technology

NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY Faculty of Food Technology Specialized English in Food Technology Van Tang Nguyen, PhD September 2019 Contents  Introduction to subject  Basic concepts and definitions  Special topics in food technology Special topics in food technology 1. Tropical products: tea, coffee, cocoa, cashew and pepper 2. Fruits and vegetables 3. Fermented products: wine, beer, beverages and other foods 4. Milk and milk-originated products 5. Canned foods 6. Food oils and fats 7. Cane sugar 8. Bakery and confectionary 9. Functional foods 10. Food safety 11. Machines and equipments in food processing 12. New trends in food science and technology Assessment 1. Attendance/attitude: 10% 2. Exercise(s) (40%): Class exercises, home works and student’s presentations 3. Final exam (50%): Reading and writing References [1] International Food Information Service. 2009. Dictionary of Food Science and Technology (second edition). Wiley-Blackwell. [2] Bùi Đức Hợi và cộng sự. Từ điển công nghiệp thực phẩm Anh Việt. NXB Khoa học và Kỹ thuật. [3] Nguyễn Thị Hiền (Chủ biên). 1998. The language of chemistry, food and biological technology in English. Trường ĐHBKHN. [4] Nguyen, V. T. (Ed). 2017. Recovering bioactive compounds from agricultural wastes. John Wiley & Son, UK & USA. [5] Other references suggest by lecturer: Books, articles, websites,… Author's personal copy Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa L Diby, J Kahia, and C Kouamé, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Abidjan, Ivory Coast E Aynekulu, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya ! 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction Tea, coffee, and cocoa are cultivated for their young leaves, cherries, and beans, respectively, from which popular beverages are made and consumed worldwide. In addition to being used as beverage, cocoa is essentially consumed as chocolate confectionery products. The stimulant properties and medicinal values of these beverages are recognized since the ancient times. These crops are among the most important agricultural commodities worldwide. Tea is the most popular beverage, and it is consumed by 65% of the world’s population, while coffee ranks second with about 2 billion cups consumed daily. Nearly 4 kg cocoa bean equivalent is consumed per capita annually in developed countries. In 2012, the production of processed tea, green coffee, and cocoa beans was 4.8, 8.8, and 5.0 million MT, respectively. This production occurs largely in the developing world (with the exception of tea in China), while the consumption happens mainly in the developed economies. For each of these commodities, more than 50% of the production is in only three countries, but unlike other products such as crude oil the market price is regulated by consumption countries. The economy of many growing countries depends heavily on the earnings from these crops which support directly or indirectly millions of people in both producing and consuming countries. Tea, coffee, and cocoa originated from Asia, Africa, and South America regions, respectively. They have been domesticated over time and selected for different production environment and constraints. Currently, the production takes place essentially within 20! N and 20! S of the equator in different climate conditions (Figure 1). They are perennial trees or shrub crops that can remain economically viable on the same land for 30–50 years after planting for cocoa and coffee, and more than 100 years for tea. The production system is extensive and dominated by smallholder farms. It is also characterized by the monocropping practices that raise some environmental concerns. The yields are very variable worldwide due to different environment conditions and management practices. This article is a summary of basic knowledge on the origin and ecology, the growth and development, the different propagation methods, and the management practices for each of these crops. dry winter in the other hand. Tea was discovered in China about 5000 years ago, and it was first consumed as medicinal drink and later on as a beverage. Its consumption became popular in the seventeenth century when British settlers introduced it in India. Currently, tea is produced in more than 50 countries in the world. It belongs to the family Camelliaceae and to the genus Camellia which accounts for more than 200 species. Cultivated tea plants are hybrids of C. sinensis and C. assamica. In its natural habit, C. sinensis is an evergreen shrub of 1–2 m tall with hard, thick, and leathery leaf. C. assamica is a small tree of 10–15 m tall with broadly elliptic leaf blade of 8–20 cm long and 3.5–7.5 cm wide. C. sinensis is diploid (2n ¼ 2x ¼ 30) while C. assamica is triploid (2n ¼ 3x ¼ 45). Ecology Tea is adapted to a wide range of growing conditions including altitudes ranging from sea level to about 2800 m a.s.l. and temperatures varying from #12 to 40 ! C while optimal temperature ranges from 18 to 20 ! C. C. sinensis is more tolerant to high altitude and low temperature, while hot and humid climate are more suitable for C. assamica. The rainfall range is between 900 and 6000 mm, while optimal rainfall uniformly distributed over the year is about 1600 mm. The ideal relative humidity is within 70–90%. The best soil should be porous, well drained, with pH of 4.5–5.5 although tea can accommodate pH between 3.3 and 6. Growth and Development Shoot growth and development are the main component of yield in tea. Shoot growth is characterized by three chronological stages starting with a slow enlargement of the axillary bud and the release and development of the leaf primordial. This stage is followed by leaf unfolding during which shoots extend and the leaves develop. During this second stage, the number of shoots increases with soil fertility level, and each shoot harvested replaced itself by 1.1–1.6 new shoots. The third stage corresponds to the dormancy of the terminal bud. The duration of the first two stages is variety and environment specific. The flowers are generally white, occasionally with pale pink pigmentation and are borne singly or in pairs in the cataphyllary axils. Tea crops begin to fruit 5–6 years after planting, and each fruit contained two to three seeds. Tea Historic and Botany Propagation Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) is believed to have originated from the high regions of Southwest China, Myanmar, and Northeast India. These areas are characterized by monsoon climates with warm and wet summer in one hand and cool and Tea is propagated mainly through cuttings and seeds. Cuttings are harvested from healthy vigorous growing plants that have not been pruned for 4–9 months, and usually the middle portion is preferred. Each cutting is about 3–5 cm long with 420 Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394807-6.00179-9 Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, Second Edition, 2017, 420–425 Author's personal copy Tropical Agriculture j Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Figure 1 a) Tea, b) coffee, and c) cocoa production countries in the world (FAO, 2012). Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, Second Edition, 2017, 420–425 421 Author's personal copy 422 Figure 1 Tropical Agriculture j Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa (continued). one healthy leaf. The best period to collect and keep them fresh is on cool and cloudy day. The cuttings are planted straight or slightly slanted so that the leaf does not touch the soil. They are then transplanted to the field about 12 months later once they are rooted. Seeds are planted at a depth of 1.5–2.5 cm, with the ‘eye’ of the seed pointing downward. They sprout within one or several months after planting. Crop Improvement and Management The initial work of tea breeding focused on yield improvement. However, the lack of information on the defense mechanism and stress tolerance has prevented progress on selection for pest- and disease-resistant cultivars. Tea production is constrained by more than 100 fungal diseases, among which Camellia dieback and canker are the most serious and are caused by Glomerella cingulata. Camellia flower blight caused by Ciborinia camelliae is another serious fungal disease. A number of viral, bacterial, nematode, and numerous pests also pose major production challenges. To mitigate these challenges, an integrated pest management (IPM) approach is recommended. N is the key mineral nutrient for tea being a leaf crop. Tea is sensitive to the source of N with ammonium source promoting growth and development while the nitrate source inhibits growth. Sulfur and trace elements like Zn, B, and Mo can be applied on needed basis. Pruning is one of the most important operations, next to plucking, which directly determines the productivity of tea. It prevents top growth and stimulates growth of the bush for comfortable plucking with renewed and vigorous branching pattern. It is important to establish a well-developed primary frame and branch system to ensure a complete ground cover as early as possible. Coffee History and Botany All commercial coffee species originated from Africa and belong to the genus Coffea. The high-quality C. arabica originated from the rain forests in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia. C. canephora varieties including robusta coffee, grow at lower altitude and perform well in the equatorial, warm, and wet tropics, and they occur naturally in the western Congo basin. There exist also two additional minor coffee species, C. liberica and C. excelsa that are genetically considered as a single complex. C. liberica originates from West Africa around Liberia while C. excelsa comes from the drier parts of Central Africa, mainly Central African Republic. Coffee belongs to the family Rubiaceae, which has about 500 genera and more than 6000 species. The genus Coffea L. comprises more than 100 species, of which only two (C. arabica and C. canephora) are commercially cultivated. C. liberica is also cultivated in Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, Second Edition, 2017, 420–425 Author's personal copy Tropical Agriculture j Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa 423 a small scale to satisfy local consumption. Almost all the coffee species are diploid (2n ¼ 2x ¼ 22) and generally selfincompatible except C. arabica which is a natural allotetraploid (2n ¼ 4x ¼ 44) self-fertile species. at 15! C. Tissue culture is used to rapidly multiply elite hybrids and clones. Coffee plants can be regenerated using three general procedures, namely, axillary bud branching, shoot organogenesis, and somatic embryogenesis (SE). Ecology Crop Improvement and Management Coffee can be cultivated from a few meters to up to 2000 m a.s.l., although higher altitudes generally produce a better quality crop. Temperature is one of the limiting factors for coffee and the optimum range is between 15! C and 24! C. Rainfall is the second most important growth limiting factor with range between 1000 and 2000 mm. However, in lower rainfall areas, irrigation is a common practice. The best soil should be well drained, deep, and rich in organic matter with pH range from 5.4 to 6.0. Coffee breeding is largely restricted to the two species, C. arabica and C. canephora, that dominate world coffee production. However, C. liberica has contributed useful characters to the gene pool of C. arabica and C. canephora through natural and artificial interspecific hybridization. Initial breeding objectives were to increase productivity and adaptability to local conditions. The appearance of coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix Berk and Br) in epidemic scale in Southeast Asia between 1870 and 1900 changed the breeding focus worldwide with focus on disease resistance. Although conventional breeding is mainly used for coffee improvement, it is a long process involving selection, hybridization, and progeny evaluation. In recent years, the coffee genome has been sequenced using highthroughput technology and this has substantially shortened the breeding process. Coffee grows well under shade, and naturally occurring varieties can only be cultivated under shade trees as it was practiced in the earlier years. However, the release of new full-sun hybrids with high yields circumvented the use of shade resulting in quality depreciation, loss of biodiversity, and other environmental changes. Major coffee pests and diseases are outlined in Table 1. The recommended disease management options include the use of tolerant varieties, chemical and biological control as well as best cultural practices. Coffee berries removed proportionally more nutrients compared to the harvested products of cocoa and tea. K and N are the major nutrients required in coffee production. K contributes to fruit development while N is necessary for vegetative growth. P uptake is less important, but it is essential for root, flower, and fruit growth and development. Other nutrients such as B and Zn are applied on needed basis. For optimal growth and productivity of coffee, the trees need to be pruned. Pruning helps to establish a strong framework, maintain the ideal crop leaf ratio and rejuvenate the tree. There are basically two pruning systems, namely single Growth and Development The growth and development in coffee is divided into vegetative and reproductive phases. There are two distinct structures in this phase, the root and the shoot systems. The root system is composed of the vertical and lateral roots that grow parallel to the ground and the tap root that grows vertically down the ground. The density and length of roots of most important species are age dependent and vary with the planting densities, soil characteristics, and cultural practices. The shoot system has two main components, a main vertical trunk (orthotropic) and primary, secondary, and tertiary horizontal branches (plagiotropic). This phase includes flowering, fruit development, and ripening. Three to four years after planting, flowers grow in clusters in the axils of the coffee leaves. After fertilization, the subsequent fruit development is organized in five stages: (1) pinhead that spreads from 6 to 10 weeks after blossoming, (2) rapid swelling that takes place from 10 to 17 weeks, (3) suspended and slow growth that lasts about 2 weeks after the rapid swelling stage, (4) endosperm filling occurring 19–28 weeks, and (5) ripening stage that extends from 8 to 12 months after flowering. Propagation Coffee is propagated through seeds, cuttings, grafting, and tissue culture. For cuttings, the non-lignified orthotropic shoots with one node are harvested early in the morning when the relative humidity is comparatively high. The cuttings are kept in propagator for rooting and then potted in nursery containers filled with compost for 2–3 months before replanting in the farms. Grafting has been used to graft C. arabica species (which have a root system susceptible to nematodes) on C. liberica (which is resistant). The best grafting methods are simple cleft grafting, top grafting, side grafting, and shield grafting that are used to propagate natural hybrids and clones. With seeds, in order to reduce the risk of cross pollination, fully ripened berries from trees growing in the center of a block are used. They are harvested, pulped, and dried for immediate germination on sand bed before transplanting them in polybags containing appropriate substrate. For conservation, the seeds are further dried to a moisture content of about 41% and can be kept viable for more than 2 years in airtight polythene bags Table 1 Major coffee pests and diseases, causal agents, and prevailing areas Pests and diseases Causal agents Prevailing areas Coffee leaf rust (fungus) Coffee berry disease (fungus) Stem borers (insect) Hemileia vastatrix Africa, Asia Colletotrichum kahawae Coleoptera: Cerambycidae Pseudomonas syringae Hypothenemus hampei Leucoptera coffeella Africa, Asia, and South America Africa, Asia, and South America Africa Bacterial blight (bacteria) Coffee berry borer (insect) Coffee leaf miner (insect) Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, Second Edition, 2017, 420–425 Africa, South and Central America All production areas Author's personal copy 424 Tropical Agriculture j Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa stem (single trunk) and double stem (multiple trunk). The fundamental difference is the number of stems and branches maintained on the trees. of fruit and seed maturity. Growth stages 7 and 8 last 150–200 days after anthesis. The last growth phase (growth stage 9) is the senescence. Propagation Cocoa History and Botany Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is native to South (Amazon forest) and Central Americas. It has been known and cultivated by the Mayas and the Atzeques for about 2000 years. The crop was first moved from its area of origin and expanded throughout Mexico by the Atzeques. While the Spanish settlers discovered the crop in the Caribbean in the sixteenth century, cocoa was cultivated as cash crop only in the seventeenth century. It was introduced in West Africa through Sao Tome and Principe in 1822 by the Portuguese settlers. The genus Theobroma belongs to the order Malvales and to the family Malvaceae (previously Sterculiaceae). Theobroma includes 22 species of which only T. cacao and T. grandiflorum have economic values with T. cacao being by far the most important of the two. T. cacao is both self-incompatible and self-compatible depending on the genotypes, and it is diploid (2n ¼ 20). Ecology Cocoa is an evergreen understory tree with a height of up to ca. 9–10 m in its natural habit, although cultivated cocoa are managed at a shorter height. While cacao can grow under temperature varying from 20 to 30 ! C, the optimum growth occurs under 25–28 ! C. The ideal rainfall range varies from 1500 to 3000 mm, which should be well distributed throughout the year with less than 3 months of dry season. Relative humidity is a major limiting factor in cocoa production and RH above 80% is required. Cocoa can grow on a variety of soil types; however, the best soil should be deep, light with sufficient organic matter and pH varying between 5.5 and 8. Cocoa is mainly propagated by generative and vegetative methods. With the generative method, cocoa seeds are directly sown in the field or raised in nurseries for about 6 months before transplanting in the field. It is recommended that seeds are produced from known parentage to limit genetic variation in the progenies. The vegetative propagation is suitable for genetically heterogenous planting materials. It includes mainly cuttings, grafting, and SE. Cuttings are collected from young fan branches or orthotropic shoots and are rooted in potting substrates before transplanting them on farms. Grafting consists of using scions from elite cocoa plant materials and grafting them on young cocoa seedlings or mature trees, referred to as rootstocks (Figure 2). SE is a tissue culture cloning method that uses plant parts (immature flowers for cocoa) to regenerate plantlets. Crop Improvement and Management Cocoa breeding work has been focused on yield and disease resistance. This has been achieved by crossing materials from the three genetic groups ‘Criollo,’ ‘Forastero,’ and their hybrids ‘Trinitario.’ It is expected that the recent reclassification of cocoa into 10 genetic groups and the mapping of cocoa genome will accelerate the selection of plant materials adapted to current production challenges. Cocoa is susceptible to a number of pests and diseases that are location specific and cause an estimated loss of 30%–40% of world’s production. The causal agents of the major pests and diseases are fungi, virus, and insects (Table 2). Cocoa swollen shoot virus is one of the main threats to cocoa production in West Africa. The crop is also susceptible to many obligate hemiparasitic plants. The pests and diseases management options are similar to those recommended for coffee. Growth and Development T. cacao has nine principal growth stages as per the BBCH (Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie, Germany) growth classification scale. Growth stage 0 includes seed germination where the seedling exhibits a fast growth of the tap root on which rootlets are formed. These rootlets develop further into lateral roots for nutrients acquisition. Growth stage 1 comprises leaf development on both principal stem and lateral branches. Leaf growth is characterized by a leaf flush where about 10 leaves initiate simultaneously and expand for about 40 days before the next flush. Growth stage 2 includes the elongation of the principal stem and the development of jorquette of lateral branches and chupons that occur 1–2 years after planting. Growth stage 3 consists in the elongation of the lateral branches. The growth stage 4 in the BBCH scale does not apply to cocoa, but only to cereals. Growth stages 5 and 6 entail the emergence of the inflorescence and flowering, respectively. A cocoa tree can produce up to 120 000 flowers per year, from which only 0.5–5% reach maturity. Growth stages 7 and 8 correspond to the development Figure 2 Elite cocoa clones grafted on mature trees used as rootstocks. Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, Second Edition, 2017, 420–425 Author's personal copy Tropical Agriculture j Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Table 2 425 Major cocoa pests and diseases, causal agents, and prevailing areas Pests and diseases Main causal agents Prevailing areas Phytophthora pod rot (fungus) Frosty pod rot (fungus) Witches broom (fungus) Vascular streak dieback (fungus) Cocoa swollen shoot (virus) Mirids or capsids (insect) P. palmivova, P. megakarya, P. capsici, P. citrophthora Crinipellis roreri Moniliophthora perniciosa Oncobasidium theobromae Cocoa swollen shoot virus Sahlbergella singularis, Distantiella theobromae, Bryocoropsis; Odoniella, Boxiopsis madagascariensis, Afropeltis; Helopeltis, Pseudodoniella, Platyngomiriodes, Monalonion Conopomorpha cramerella Eulophonotus myrmeleon, Pantorhytes Cryptotermes havilandi, Coptotermes sjostedti, Schedorhinotermes putorius, Macrotermes bellicosus All production regions depending on causal agents South and Central Americas South and Central Americas Pacific, South East Asia West Africa All production regions depending on causal agents Cocoa pod borer (insect) Stem borer (insect) Termite (insect) Leaf lamina is the major sink for nutrients in cocoa, and the amounts of nutrient stored by the plant decreases in the following order: K > N > Ca > Mg > P > Mn > Zn. In wellestablished farms, cocoa litter decomposition can produce enough N to supply the crop needs. This endogenous N should be taken into account when designing fertilizer recommendations for the crop. Pruning is a common practice in cocoa cultivation not only for production and sanitation reasons, but also to limit the growth of the plant. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Mr Kouassi Jean-Luc who produced the map (Figure 1), and to Mr Koffi Kouassi who provided us the picture (Figure 2). See also: Arable Crops: Agricultural Crops; Canopy Architecture; Field Crops; Growth Analysis, Crops; Multicropping. Crop Diseases and Pests: Bacterial Diseases; Breeding for Disease Resistance; Fungal and Oomycete Diseases; Integrated Pest Management: Practice; Integrated Pest Management: Principles; Plant Pathology, Principles; Viral Diseases. Horticulture Production and Quality: Orchard Crops. Plant Breeding and Genetics: Plant Breeding, Practice; Plant Breeding, Principles. Plant Cells: Leaf Development. Plant Nutrition: Deficiency Diseases, Principles; Growth and Function of Root Systems; Mineral Uptake. Postharvest Biology: Ripening. Reproduction and Biodiversity: Fertilization; Flower Development; Gametophytic Self-Incompatability; Pollination; Sporophytic Self-Incompatability. Tissue Culture: Clonal Propagation, Forest Trees; General Principles of Tissue Culture; Somatic Embryogenesis. Tropical Agriculture: Oil Palm; Plantation Crops and Plantations; Rubber; The Coconut Palm. Further Reading Carr, M.K.V., Lockwood, G., 2011. The water relations and irrigation requirements of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.): a review. Exp. Agric. 47 (4), 653–676. Carr, M.K.V., 2010a. The role of water in the growth of the tea (Camellia sinensis L.) crop: a synthesis of research in Eastern Africa. 1. Plant water relations. Exp. Agric. 46, 327–349. South East Asia West Africa, Pacific Africa, South America, Pacific Carr, M.K.V., 2010b. The role of water in the growth of the Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) crop: a synthesis of research in Eastern Africa. 2. Water productivity. Exp. Agric. 46, 351–379. DaMatta, F.M., Ronchi, C.P., Maestri, M., Barros, R.S., 2007. Ecophysiology of coffee growth and production. Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 19 (4), 485–510. Hartemink, A.E., 2005. Nutrient stocks, nutrient cycling, and soil changes in cocoa ecosystems: a review. Adv. Agron. 26, 227–253. Hazarika, L.K., Bhuyan, M., Hazarika, B.N., 2009. Insect pests of tea and their management. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 54, 267–284. Motamayor, J.C., Lachenaud, P., Da Silva E Mota, J.W., et al., 2008. Geographic and genetic population differentiation of the Amazonian chocolate tree (Theobroma cacao L). PLoS One 3 (10), e3311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0003311. Niemenak, N., Cilas, C., Rohsius, C., et al., 2010. Phenological growth stages of cacao plants (Theobroma sp.): codification and description according to the BBCH scale. Ann. Appl. Biol. 156, 13–24. Owuor, O.P., Kamau, D.M., Jondiko, E.O., 2010. The influence of geographical area of production and nitrogenous fertiliser on yields and quality parameters of clonal tea. J. Food Agric. Environ. 8 (2), 682–690. Peter, K.V., Kurian, A., Chopra, V.L., 2003. Plantation crops and plantations. In: Murphy, D.J., Murray, B.G., Thomas, B. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 3-volume Set, first ed. Elsevier Science, Burlington, pp. 956–960. Ploetz, R.C., 2006. Cocoa diseases: important threats to chocolate production worldwide. Annual Meeting of the American Phytopathological Society Joint with the Canadian Phytopathological Society and the Mycological Society of America, July 30, 2006. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. Tscharntke, T., Clough, Y., Bhagwat, S.A., et al., 2011. Multifunctional shade tree management in tropical agroforestry landscapes – a review. J. Appl. Ecol. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01939.x. Vos, J.G.M., Ritchie, B.J., Flood, J., 2003. Discovery Learning about Cocoa. An Inspirational Guide for Training Tacilitators. CABI Bioscience, UK. Willson, K.C. (Ed.), 1999. Crop Production Science in Horticulture 8: Cocoa, Coffee and Tea. CABI International, Wallingford. Relevant Websites http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treesandmarkets/inaforesta/ – Cocoa Agroforestry. http://faostat3.fao.org – FAO Database. www.internationalcamellia.org – International Camellia Society. www.icco.org – International Cocoa Organization. www.ico.org – International Coffee Organization. www.tocklai.net – Tea Research Association India. http://www.tearesearch.or.ke – Tea Research in Kenya. Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, Second Edition, 2017, 420–425 View publication stats July 2017 Fermented Foods Special points of interest:  Learn about Fermented Foods  Discover New Fermented Foods  Health Benefits of Fermented Foods  Recipes for making your own Fermented Foods Fermented Foods  Fermented foods contain microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeasts, that use the nutrients in the food as an energy source.  The result is a transformation of the original food into one with organic acids and other compounds beneficial for health. Homemade kombucha, which is a fermented tea beverage. Inside this issue: History of 2 Fermented Foods Probiotics and Prebiotics 3  Fermented foods have a unique flavor that is tangy, pungent, and aromatic.  There are dozens of fermented foods ranging from drinks to side dishes. Fermented Foods 4 from Around the World Kombucha: A Fermented Tea Beverage 5 How to Make Kombucha at Home 6 Saurkraut and Kefir Smoothie Recipes 7 References 8 Pickles are fermented cucumbers. Gastrointestinal Health  Fermented foods have the ability to improve the function of the gastrointestinal system.  This improvement is due to the ability of fermented foods to increase the amount of helpful bacteria in the gut.  These bacteria are able to digest food, fight off harmful bacteria, and lessen symptoms of constipation and diarrhea. Page 2 Fermented Foods Global Cultures Fertile Crescent Region Fermentation is an ancient practice used to preserve food. In traditional fermentation, salt plays a crucial role in creating an environment that is conducive towards good bacteria and preventing growth of harmful pathogens. Intentional fermentation is thought to have first occurred in the Fertile Crescent area of the Middle East in 6000 B.C. Since then virtually every culture has at least one fermented food: kimchi from Korea; chutneys from India; and garii, fermented cassava, from West Africa. Garii from West Africa Science of Probiotics Probiotics have been shown to contribute to a proper microbial balance, which helps to support the immune system and reduce inflammation in the gut. Probiotic consumption may help to reduce complications relating to the gastrointestinal tract including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, and diarrhea. Integrative Medicine Integrative medicine is a holistic approach to healthcare, that takes into account the whole person, including body and mind in the healing process. A major component of integrative medicine is gut health and its relationship to diseases. Registered Dietitians working with an integrative medicine team often encourage consuming probiotics, preferably though food, to reintroduce helpful bacteria and thus facilitate optimal digestive function. The connection between fermented foods and health can be traced back to both ancient Rome and China. (Reference #1) Fermented Foods Page 3 Prebiotics Prebiotics are not bacteria themselves, but natural, non-digestible food components that helpful bacteria can use as an energy source and proliferate from. Prebiotics thus improve digestive health, and also may enhance calcium absorption. Sources of prebiotics in foods include bananas, whole wheat foods, and vegetables such as leeks, asparagus, and artichokes. (Reference #2) Probiotics Probiotics are helpful bacteria that naturally occur in the gut that digest and breakdown food. They give a boost to the current bacteria and help to balance gut flora. Probiotics can improve gastrointestinal health and immunity, as well as prevent specific allergy symptoms. Food sources of probiotics include fermented dairy products such as kefir, yogurt, and aged cheeses. Non-dairy fermented foods that contain probiotics include kimchi, sauerkraut, miso, and tempeh. (Reference #2) Kefir vs. Yogurt Kefir and yogurt are both fermented milk products that contain probiotics that facilitate optimal gut health. However, the process by which these foods are fermented differs. A Selection of Commercial Kefir Kefir Grains Kefir is fermented by both bacteria and yeast that are present together as “kefir grains” which are a gelatinous culture. It’s important to shake Yogurt is fermented by the bottle well to distribute the grains and make the kefir creamy, bacteria that can digest smooth, and easy to drink. the lactose sugar in milk. Consuming fermented dairy products may lower the risk of developing high blood pressure. (Reference #1) Fermented Foods Page 4 Kimchi Kimchi Jjigae, a stew made with with kimchi. Kimchi is a traditional side dish from Korea made from various vegetables, but commonly nappa cabbage and daikon radishes, with various spices that have been lacto-fermented. Lacto-fermentation is a process in which foods are submerged in salt water and are fermented by lactobacillus bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria provide benefits to human health, such as improved digestion of lactose and prevention of intestinal infections. Kimchi may have the ability to improve mental functioning due to increasing the expression of a gene responsible for regulating psychological stress and anxiety. (References #3 and #4) Pickles Pickling begins when vegetables are immersed in a salty, acidic brine. Over time, micro-organisms turn the sugars in the vegetables into lactic acid, leading to the notorious sharp flavor. A jar of pickled peppers makes for a great topping on salads or sandwiches. Cucumbers are a common vegetable of choice to pickle, but other vegetables can work as well such as onions, peppers, and beets. Pickles are a source of probiotics, which can help to improve digestion and enhance the availability of nutrients in our foods and drinks. (Reference #6) Apple Cider Vinegar Vinegar is said to originate as far back as 400 B.C. in Greece, when Hippocrates used it as a medicinal treatment. Apple cider vinegar has subtle fruit notes that can add flavor to salad dressings and sauces. The process begins by crushing apples into juice, adding yeast, and letting it ferment in barrels. Store bought apple cider vinegar. Research suggests apple cider vinegar can help to control blood sugars after a sugary meal. Also, apple cider vinegar has polyphenols, a potential cancer-fighting nutrient. (Reference #7) Fermented Foods Page 5 What is Kombucha? Kombucha is a sugared tea that has been fermented via a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast, or a SCOBY for short. The SCOBY is a mat-like pellicle, or tea fungus, that feeds off the sugar and replicates each fermentation cycle. It’s thought that kombucha originated in China some 2000 years ago. In terms of flavor, Kombucha is mildly acidic, fruity, sour and effervescent. Although kombucha has flavor on its own, it comes in various other flavors with fruit juices and herbs like ginger added for a more dynamic taste. Kombucha Benefits Kombucha has been shown to help with digestion, prevent microbial infections, and even have a positive influence on cholesterol levels. Kombucha is made with green, black, or oolong tea, which have beneficial antioxidants. Antioxidants are helpful compounds that stop free radicals which are harmful compounds that cause cell damage. Kombucha tea actually has more antioxidants than regular tea due to the acidic environment and enzymes from the yeast and bacteria culture that break large antioxidants into many small antioxidants. (Reference #5) Where to Purchase Kombucha Where to Purchase Kombucha Kombucha can be found in most grocery stores in the organic section with the refrigerated foods. A local company called Unity Vibration makes hand-crafted, artisanal kombucha teas. Visit unityvibrationkombucha.com for more information and where to find stores that sell their product near you. GT’s/Synergy Kombucha Page 6 Fermented Foods Kombucha Recipe Making kombucha is rather quick and simple. However, you will need to obtain a SCOBY from a friend to start a new batch, or purchase one online. Other ingredients are tea (black, green, or oolong), sugar, and a glass vessel. Directions 1) Fill vessel with 2 cups of plain kombucha tea if available to kick start the brew. 2) Boil 1 gallon of water, add 1 cup of sugar, and wait till it dissolves. 3) Steep 8 teabags for 5 minutes in the water. 4) Let cool to room temperature and then add to vessel. 5) Carefully slide SCOBY in the vessel and store with cover that allows air to pass through (paper towel or cheesecloth). 6) Wait and let ferment for 7-10 days. 7) Bottle and enjoy! (Kombucha is stable for 1 month in refrigerator.) Some quick notes about home-brewing -Check for any growth of mold; is rare but sometimes happens if contamination occurs. -The SCOBY will replicate each cycle, so dispose of the old one on the bottom, and use the new one on top for the next batch. Flavor Ideas Flavors should be added to the individual bottles to prevent any contamination of the SCOBY and vessel. Try adding a touch of fruit juice such as orange juice or pomegranate juice for a tropical flavor. Alternatively, try adding actual fruit, such as blueberries and strawberries, and filter before serving. Cut up a few ginger root slices and mint leaves and let sit with the kombucha overnight to give it a little spice. Fermented Foods Page 7 Sauerkraut Recipe Sauerkraut is a traditional fermented cabbage dish from Germany commonly served as a side or as a condiment on bratwurst. Directions 1) Slice 2 large cabbages and place into a large mixing bowl. 2) Add 2 tablespoons of salt and 1 tablespoon of caraway seeds, mix together. 3) Place the mixture into glass canning jars and cover with a paper towel secured by a rubber band. 4) Let ferment in a cool dark place for 3-4 weeks, replace top with a lid, and enjoy! Store in refrigerator and eat within 2 months. Strawberry Banana Kefir Smoothie Recipe Kefir is more liquid and pourable than yogurt, and thus can be used to make smoothies without the addition of milk. This is a recipe for a strawberry banana smoothie, but any fruit in these proportions will blend well. Directions (Serves 1) 1) Cut 1 large banana into several slices. 2) Measure out 1 cup of strawberries, cut off the leaves, and then slice a few times. 3) Measure out 1 cup of plain kefir. 4) Place all in a blender, blend till smooth, and pour into a glass. References Thank you for reading! I hope you discovered new information relating to fermented foods and encourage you to incorporate these wonderful fermented foods in your diet. 1.) Foroutan, R (2012, February 20). The history and health benefits of fermented food. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from Food & Nutrition, http://www.foodandnutrition.org/Winter-2012/TheHistory-and-Health-Benefits-of-Fermented-Food/ 2.) Wolfram, T. (2016, October 10). Prebiotics and Probiotics: Creating a healthier you. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from eatright, http://www.eatright.org/resource/food/vitamins-andsupplements/nutrient-rich-foods/prebiotics-and-probiotics-thedynamic-duo 3.) Tamang, J. P, et al. (2016). Functional properties of microorganisms in fermented foods. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7(578). 4.) Selhub, E. M, et al.. (2014). Fermented foods, microbiota, and mental health: Ancient practice meets nutritional psychiatry. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 33(1), 2. 5.) Watawana et al., “Health, Wellness, and Safety Aspects of the Consumption of Kombucha,” Journal of Chemistry, vol. 2015, Article ID 591869, 2015. 6.) http://www.pbs.org/food/the-history-kitchen/history-pickles/ 7.) http://www.theleangreenbean.com/all-about-apple-cidervinegar/ Owen Densel Patient Food and Nutrition Services 300 N. Ingalls Street NIB NI8E20 Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5407 (734) 936-5147 A special thanks to April Pickrel MS, RDN for her help and guidance in this project. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture J Sci Food Agric 87:930–944 (2007) Review Nutritional comparison of fresh, frozen and canned fruits and vegetables. Part 1. Vitamins C and B and phenolic compounds Joy C Rickman, Diane M Barrett and Christine M Bruhn∗ Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California – Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA Abstract: The first of a two-part review of the recent and classical literature reveals that loss of nutrients in fresh products during storage and cooking may be more substantial than commonly perceived. Depending on the commodity, freezing and canning processes may preserve nutrient value. The initial thermal treatment of processed products can cause loss of water-soluble and oxygen-labile nutrients such as vitamin C and the B vitamins. However, these nutrients are relatively stable during subsequent canned storage owing to the lack of oxygen. Frozen products lose fewer nutrients initially because of the short heating time in blanching, but they lose more nutrients during storage owing to oxidation. Phenolic compounds are also water-soluble and oxygenlabile, but changes during processing, storage and cooking appear to be highly variable by commodity. Further studies would facilitate the understanding of the changes in these phytochemicals. Changes in moisture content during storage, cooking and processing can misrepresent changes in nutrient content. These findings indicate that exclusive recommendations of fresh produce ignore the nutrient benefits of canned and frozen products. Nutritional comparison would be facilitated if future research would express nutrient data on a dry weight basis to account for changes in moisture.  2007 Society of Chemical Industry Keywords: nutrient; fruit; vegetable; canned; frozen; vitamins; phenolic INTRODUCTION Fruits and vegetables are colourful, flavourful and nutritious components of our diets and are often most attractive and health-promoting when harvested at their peak maturity. Unfortunately, most people do not have home gardens capable of supplying the recommended 5–13 daily servings year round. Many fruits and vegetables grow only in certain parts of the world, under specific temperature and humidity environments, and at particular times of the year. In addition, fruits and vegetables are typically over 90% water and, once they are harvested, begin to undergo higher rates of respiration, resulting in moisture loss, quality deterioration and potential microbial spoilage. Harvesting itself separates the fruit or vegetable from its source of nutrients, the plant or tree, and it essentially uses itself as a source of calories. Many fresh fruits and vegetables have a shelf life of only days before they are unsafe or undesirable for consumption. Storage and processing technologies have been utilised for centuries to transform these perishable fruits and vegetables into safe, delicious and stable products. Refrigeration slows down the respiration of fruits and vegetables and allows for longer shelf lives. Freezing, canning and drying all serve to transform perishable fruits and vegetables into products that can be consumed year round and transported safely to consumers all over the world, not only those located near the growing region. As a result of processing, respiration is arrested, thereby stopping the consumption of nutritious components, the loss of moisture and the growth of micro-organisms. The first objective of fruit and vegetable processing is to ensure a safe product, but processors also strive to produce the highest-quality products. Depending on how processing is carried out, it may result in changes in colour, texture, flavour and nutritional quality, the last of which is the subject of the following literature review. A substantial amount of research literature has been published over the past 75 years reporting the effects of processing, storage and cooking on the nutritional quality of fruits and vegetables. Washing, peeling and blanching steps prior to processing are responsible for some loss of water-soluble nutrients. However, the thermal processing often associated with canning and pre-freezing blanching treatments is especially detrimental to heat-sensitive nutrients such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and thiamin.1 When used prior to canning, blanching serves to expel air in the tissue and improve thermal conductivity and packing into the container. The primary purpose of ∗ Correspondence to: Christine M Bruhn, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California – Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA E-mail: [email protected] (Received 21 April 2006; revised version received 19 October 2006; accepted 1 December 2006) Published online 14 March 2007; DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.2825  2007 Society of Chemical Industry. J Sci Food Agric 0022–5142/2007/$30.00