Tài liệu Handbook of petroleum processing

Handbook of Petroleum Processing Handbook of Petroleum Processing Edited by DAVID S. J. “STAN” JONES† retired chemical engineer (Fluor) Calgary, Canada and PETER R. PUJADÓ UOP LLC (retired)-Illinois, U.S.A. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 1-4020-2819-9 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-2819-9 (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-2820-2 (e-book) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-2820-5 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com Contributing Editors: L. C. James, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA G. A. Mansoori, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved.
C 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands. Contents 1. An introduction to crude oil and its processing The composition and characteristics of crude oil The crude oil assay Other basic definitions and correlations Predicting product qualities Basic processes The processes common to most energy refineries Processes not so common to energy refineries The non-energy refineries References 1 1 6 9 18 27 28 37 40 45 2. Petroleum products and a refinery configuration 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Petroleum products 2.3 A discussion on the motive fuels of gasoline and diesel 2.4 A refinery process configuration development Conclusion 47 47 48 63 76 109 3. The atmospheric and vacuum crude distillation units 3.1 The atmospheric crude distillation unit Process description The development of the material balance for the atmospheric crude distillation unit The design characteristics of an atmospheric crude distillation fractionating tower The fractionator overhead system The side streams and intermediate reflux sections Calculating the main tower dimensions The crude feed preheat exchanger system design An example in the design of an atmospheric crude oil distillation tower 111 112 112 v 115 119 122 128 137 142 146 vi CONTENTS 3.2 The vacuum crude distillation unit Process description The vacuum crude distillation unit’s flash zone The tower overhead ejector system Calculating flash zone conditions in a vacuum unit Draw-off temperatures Determine pumparound and internal flows for vacuum towers Calculate tower loading in the packed section of vacuum towers Appendix 169 169 171 172 176 177 178 179 183 4. The distillation of the ‘Light Ends’ from crude oil A process description of a ‘light ends’ unit Developing the material balance for light end units Calculating the operating conditions in light end towers Calculating the number of trays in light end towers Condenser and reboiler duties Tower loading and sizing Checks for light end tower operation and performance 189 189 191 196 199 203 205 214 5. Catalytic reforming Feedstocks Catalysts Process flow schemes Advantages of CCR Platforming Catalysts and suppliers References 217 219 227 232 234 236 237 6. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) Fluidization Process control Reaction chemistry and mechanisms Gas oil cracking technology features Cracking for light olefins and aromatics Nomenclature References Appendix 6.1. Commercially available FCC catalysts and additives 239 244 247 248 250 271 278 279 7. Distillate hydrocracking Brief history Flow schemes Chemistry Catalysts 287 287 288 292 298 282 CONTENTS vii Catalyst manufacturing Catalyst loading and activation Catalyst deactivation and regeneration Design and operation of hydrocracking reactors Hydrocracking process variables Hydrocracker licensors and catalyst manufacturers 300 305 306 308 312 319 8. Hydrotreating Brief history Flow schemes Chemistry Catalysts Catalyst manufacturing Catalyst loading and activation Catalyst deactivation and regeneration Design and operation of hydrotreating reactors Hydrotreating process variables Hydrotreaters licensors and catalyst manufacturers 321 322 323 327 334 337 340 342 344 347 353 9. Gasoline components 9.1 Motor fuel alkylation Introduction History Process chemistry HF alkylation process flow description Sulfuric acid alkylation Stratco effluent refrigerated alkylation process Alkylate properties Recent developments Conclusions References 9.2 Catalytic olefin condensation Introduction History Catalytic condensation process Catalytic condensation process for gasoline production Hydrogenated versus nonhydrogenated polymer gasolines from the catalytic condensation process Selective and nonselective gasoline production with the catalytic condensation process Catalytic condensation process as a source of diesel fuels Petrochemical operations Dimersol process 355 355 355 355 356 360 364 366 370 370 371 371 372 372 373 373 376 379 383 385 386 389 viii CONTENTS Other dimerization or oligomerization processes Recent developments Catalytic olefin condensation with the InAlk process Catalyst suppliers Conclusions References 9.3 Isomerization technologies for the upgrading of light naphtha and refinery light ends Introduction Process chemistry of paraffin isomerization Primary reaction pathways Isomerization catalysts I-80 catalyst development and applications LPI-100 catalyst development and applications New isomerization process technologies Isomerization process economics Other applications Conclusions References Bibliography 391 392 393 398 398 399 400 400 401 403 404 406 409 410 412 415 415 416 416 10. Refinery gas treating processes Introduction The process development and description Common processes Other gas treating processes Calculating the amine circulation rate Calculating the number of theoretical trays in an amine contactor Calculating absorber tray size and design Calculating the heat transfer area for the lean/rich amine exchanger The stripper design and performance Removing degradation impurities from MEA Appendix 10.1 The process design of an amine gas treating unit 417 417 417 419 423 424 11. Upgrading the ‘Bottom of the Barrel’ The thermal cracking processes ‘Deep oil’ fluid catalytic cracking Residuum hydrocracking Conclusion Appendix 11.1 Sizing a thermal cracker heater/reactor 447 448 458 469 472 473 425 428 428 429 430 431 CONTENTS ix 12. The non-energy refineries Introduction 12.1 The lube oil refinery Lube oil properties A description of major processes in lube oil refining 12.2 Asphalt production 12.3 The petrochemical refinery The production of aromatics Process discussion Appendix 12.1 Sizing a bitumen oxidizer 483 483 483 486 487 494 508 508 511 512 13. Support systems common to most refineries 13.1 Control systems Definitions Reflux drums The control valve 13.2 Offsite systems Storage facilities Atmospheric storage Pressure storage Heated storage tanks Calculating heat loss and heater size for a tank Product blending facilities Road and rail loading facilities Jetty and dock facilities Jetty size, access, and location Waste disposal facilities The flare Effluent water treating facilities Other treating processes Utility Systems Brief descriptions of typical utility systems Steam and condensate systems Fuel systems Water systems The “hot lime” process The ion exchange processes Compressed air system 13.3 Safety systems Determination of risk Definitions Types of pressure relief valves Capacity 521 521 522 523 528 533 533 534 536 537 538 542 545 549 549 552 559 565 567 568 569 569 570 575 581 581 585 587 587 588 591 593 x CONTENTS Sizing of required orifice areas Sizing for flashing liquids Sizing for gas or vapor on low-pressure subsonic flow Appendix 13.1 Example calculation for sizing a tank heater Appendix 13.2 Example calculation for sizing a relief value Appendix 13.3 Control valve sizing 14. Environmental control and engineering in petroleum refining Introduction 14.1 Aqueous wastes Pollutants in aqueous waste streams Treating refinery aqueous wastes Oxidation of sulfides to thiosulfates Oxidation of mercaptans Oxidation of sulfide to sulfate Oil–water separation The API oil–water separator Storm surge ponds Other refinery water effluent treatment processes Reference 14.2 Emission to the atmosphere Features of the Clean Air Act The major effects of air pollution and the most common pollutants Monitoring atmospheric emission Reducing and controlling the atmospheric pollution in refinery products Controlling emission pollution from the refining processes 14.3 Noise pollution Noise problems and typical in-plant/community noise standards Fundamentals of acoustics and noise control Coping with noise in the design phase A typical community/in-plant noise program Appendix 14.1 Partial pressures of H2 S and NH3 over aqueous solutions of H2 S and NH3 Appendix 14.2 Example of the design of a sour water stripper with no reflux Appendix 14.3 Example design of an API separator 595 600 600 602 606 607 611 611 611 612 616 621 623 624 624 625 628 629 630 631 631 634 639 640 643 646 646 647 652 653 657 667 672 CONTENTS 15. Refinery safety measures and handling of hazardous materials Introduction 15.1 Handling of hazardous materials Anhydrous hydrofluoric acid The amines used in gas treating Caustic soda Furfural Hydrogen sulfide, H2 S Methyl ethyl ketone, MEK 15.2 Fire prevention and fire fighting The design specification Fire prevention with respect to equipment design and operation The fire main Fire foam and foam systems Class B fire foams Class A fire foams 16. Quality control of products in petroleum refining Introduction 16.1 Specifications for some common finished products The LPG products The gasolines The kerosenes Aviation turbine gasoline (ATG) and jet fuels The gas oils The fuel oil products The lube oils The asphalts Petroleum coke Sulfur 16.2 The description of some of the more common tests Specific gravity (D1298) ASTM distillations (D86, D156) Flash point test method (D93) Pour point and cloud point (D97) Kinematic viscosity (D446) Reid vapor pressure (D323) Weathering test for the volatility of LPG (D1837) Smoke point of kerosenes and aviation turbine fuels (D1322) xi 675 675 675 675 681 683 687 690 693 696 696 697 701 701 703 704 705 705 706 706 706 708 708 710 712 713 713 714 715 715 715 716 718 718 721 723 724 726 xii CONTENTS Conradson carbon residue of petroleum products (D189) Bromine number of petroleum distillates (D1159) Sulfur content by lamp method (D1266) Octane number research and motor Conclusion 17.1. Economics—Refinery planning, economics, and handing new projects 17.1.1 Refinery operation planning Running plans Developing the running plan Background Basis for assessing requirements The results The refinery operating program 17.1.2 Process evaluation and economic analysis Study approach Building process configurations and the screening study Example calculation Investment costs for the new facilities Preparing more accurate cost data Summary data sheets Capital cost estimates Discounted cash flow and economic analysis Results Using linear programs to optimize process configurations Executing an approved project Developing the duty specification The project team Primary activities of the project team Developing the operating manual and plant commissioning Process guarantees and the guarantee test run Appendices 17.1.1 Refinery plan inadequacies report 17.1.2 Crude oil inventory schedule 17.1.3 Product inventory and schedule 17.1.4 Outline operating schedule 17.1.5 Detailed operating program and schedule 17.1.6 Typical weekly program 731 733 734 736 737 739 739 740 743 745 746 747 748 752 752 756 758 762 767 771 775 784 793 794 799 799 806 807 822 830 836 837 838 839 840 841 CONTENTS 17.1.7 Typical factors used in capacity factored estimates 17.1.8 Example of a process specification 17.1.9 Example of a process guarantee 17.2. Economic analysis Introduction Analysis at one point in time Cost of production Reporting parameters Appendices 17.2.1 Background for economic calculations 17.2.2 Progressions 17.2.3 Loan repayments (mortgage formula) 17.2.4 Average rate of interest 18. Process equipment in petroleum refining Introduction 18.1 Vessels Fractionators, trays, and packings Drums and drum design Specifying pressure vessels 18.2 Pumps Pump selection Selection characteristics Capacity range Evaluating pump performance Specifying a centrifugal pump The mechanical specification The process specification Compiling the pump calculation sheet Centrifugal pump seals Pump drivers and utilities Reacceleration requirement The principle of the turbine driver The performance of the steam turbine 18.3 Compressors Calculating horsepower of centrifugal compressors Centrifugal compressor surge control, performance curves and seals Specifying a centrifugal compressor Calculating reciprocating compressor horsepower Reciprocating compressor controls and inter-cooling xiii 842 842 844 851 851 852 859 864 869 873 874 875 877 877 877 878 908 914 924 928 929 929 934 936 937 938 938 943 946 949 950 951 954 956 963 968 975 979 xiv CONTENTS Specifying a reciprocating compressor Compressor drivers, utilities, and ancillary equipment 18.4 Heat exchangers General design considerations Choice of tube side versus shell side Estimating shell and tube surface area and pressure drop Air coolers and condensers Condensers Reboilers 18.5 Fired heaters Codes and standards Thermal rating Heater efficiency Burners Refractories, stacks, and stack emissions Specifying a fired heater Appendices 18.1 LMTD correction factors 18.2 Heat of combustion of fuel oils 18.3 Heat of combustion of fuel gasses 18.4 Values for coefficient C 18.5 Some common heat transfer coefficients 18.6 Standard exchanger tube sheet data 982 990 999 1002 1005 1006 1016 1025 1029 1040 1043 1045 1047 1051 1053 1058 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1070 19. A dictionary of terms and expressions 1071 Appendices A Examples of working flow sheets B General data B1 Friction loss for viscous liquids B2 Resistance of valves and fittings B3 Viscosity versus temperature B4 Specific gravity versus temperature B5 Relationship between specific gravity and API degrees B6 Flow pressure drop for gas streams B7 Relationship of chords, diameters, and areas C A selection of crude oil assays D Conversion factors E An example of an exercise using linear programming Linear programming aids decisions on refinery configurations 1285 1285 1290 1291 1300 1301 1302 1303 1305 1307 1308 1330 1332 Alphabetic index 1349 1333 Chapter 1 An introduction to crude oil and its processing D.S.J. Jones The wheel, without doubt, was man’s greatest invention. However until the late 18th century and early 19th century the motivation and use of the wheel was limited either by muscle power, man or animal, or by energy naturally occurring from water flow and wind. The invention of the steam engine provided, for the first time, a motive power independent of muscle or the natural elements. This ignited the industrial revolution of the 19th century, with its feverish hunt for fossil fuels to generate the steam. It also initiated the development of the mass production of steel and other commodities. Late in the 19th century came the invention of the internal combustion engine with its requirement for energy derived from crude oil. This, one can say, sparked the second industrial revolution, with the establishment of the industrial scene of today and its continuing development. The petroleum products from the crude oil used initially for the energy required by the internal combustion engine, have mushroomed to become the basis and source of some of our chemical, and pharmaceutical products. The development of the crude oil refining industry and the internal combustion engine have influenced each other during the 20th century. Other factors have also contributed to accelerate the development of both. The major ones of these are the increasing awareness of environmental contamination, and the increasing demand for faster travel which led to the development of the aircraft industry with its need for higher quality petroleum fuels. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe and define some of the basic measures and parameters used in the petroleum refining industry. These set the stage for the detail examination of the industry as a whole and which are provided in subsequent chapters of this encyclopedia. The composition and characteristics of crude oil Crude oil is a mixture of literally hundreds of hydrocarbon compounds ranging in size from the smallest, methane, with only one carbon atom, to large compounds 1 2 CHAPTER 1 containing 300 and more carbon atoms. A major portion of these compounds are paraffins or isomers of paraffins. A typical example is butane shown below: H H H H ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ H⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ H ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ H H H H H ⏐ H⎯C ⏐ H H ⏐ H⎯C ⏐ H H ⏐ C⎯C⎯H ⏐ ⏐ H H Normal butane (denoted as nC4) Isobutane (denoted as iC4) Most of the remaining hydrocarbon compounds are either cyclic paraffins called naphthenes or deeply dehydrogenated cyclic compounds as in the aromatic family of hydrocarbons. Examples of these are shown below: 2H ⏐ C 2H ⎯ C ⏐ 2H ⎯ C C ⎯ 2H ⏐ C ⎯ 2H Cyclohexane (Naphthene) C ⏐ 2H H ⏐ C C⎯H ⏐ C⎯H H⎯C ⏐⏐ H⎯C Benzene (Aromatic) C ⏐ H Only the simplest of these homologues can be isolated to some degree of purity on a commercial scale. Generally, in refining processes, isolation of relatively pure AN INTRODUCTION TO CRUDE OIL AND ITS PROCESSING 3 products is restricted to those compounds lighter than C7’s. The majority of hydrocarbon compounds present in crude oil have been isolated however, but under delicate laboratory conditions. In refining processes the products are identified by groups of these hydrocarbons boiling between selective temperature ranges. Thus, for example a naphtha product would be labeled as a 90◦ C to 140◦ C cut. Not all compounds contained in crude oil are hydrocarbons. There are present also as impurities, small quantities of sulfur, nitrogen and metals. By far the most important and the most common of these impurities is sulfur. This is present in the form of hydrogen sulfide and organic compounds of sulfur. These organic compounds are present through the whole boiling range of the hydrocarbons in the crude. They are similar in structure to the hydrocarbon families themselves, but with the addition of one or more sulfur atoms. The simplest of these is ethyl mercaptan which has a molecular structure as follows: H H ⏐ ⏐ H ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ SH ⏐ ⏐ H H Ethyl Mercaptan The higher carbon number ranges of these sulfur compounds are thiophenes which are found mostly in the heavy residuum range and disulfides found in the middle distillate range of the crude. The sulfur from these heavier sulfur products can only be removed by converting the sulfur to H2 S in a hydrotreating process operating under severe conditions of temperature and pressure and over a suitable catalyst. The lighter sulfur compounds are usually removed as mercaptans by extraction with caustic soda or other suitable proprietary solvents. Organic chloride compounds are also present in crude oil. These are not removed as such but metallic protection is applied against corrosion by HCl in the primary distillation processes. This protection is in the form of monel lining in the sections of the process most vulnerable to chloride attack. Injection of ammonia is also applied to neutralize the HCl in these sections of the equipment. The most common metal impurities found in crude oils are nickel, vanadium, and sodium. These are not very volatile and are found in the residuum or fuel oil products of the crude oil. These are not removed as metals from the crude and normally they are only a nuisance if they affect further processing of the oil or if they are a deterrent to the saleability of the fuel product. For example, the metals cause severe deterioration in catalyst life of most catalytic processes. In the quality of saleable fuel oil products high concentrations of nickel and vanadium are unacceptable in fuel oils used in the production of certain steels. The metals can be removed with the glutinous portion of the fuel oil product called asphaltenes. The most common process used to accomplish this is the extraction of the asphaltenes from the residue oils using propane as solvent. 4 CHAPTER 1 Nitrogen, the remaining impurity is usually found as dissolved gas in the crude or as amines or other nitrogen compounds in the heavier fractions. It is a problem only with certain processes in naphtha product range (such as catalytic reforming). It is removed with the sulfur compounds in this range by hydrotreating the feed to these processes. Although the major families or homologues of hydrocarbons found in all crude oils as described earlier are the paraffins, cyclic paraffins and aromatics, there is a fourth group. These are the unsaturated or olefinic hydrocarbons. They are not naturally present in any great quantity in most crude oils, but are often produced in significant quantities during the processing of the crude oil to refined products. This occurs in those processes which subject the oil to high temperature for a relatively long period of time. Under these conditions the saturated hydrocarbon molecules break down permanently losing one or more of the four atoms attached to the quadrivalent carbon. The resulting hydrocarbon molecule is unstable and readily combines with itself (forming double bond links) or with similar molecules to form polymers. An example of such an unsaturated compound is as follows: H H ⏐ ⏐ H⎯C⎯ ⎯C⎯H Ethylene Note the double bond in this compound linking the two carbon atoms. Although all crude oils contain the composition described above, rarely are there two crude oils with the same characteristics. This is so because every crude oil from whatever geographical source contains different quantities of the various compounds that make up its composition. Crude oils produced in Nigeria for example would be high in cyclic paraffin content and have a relatively low specific gravity. Crude drilled in some of the fields in Venezuela on the other hand would have a very high gravity and a low content of material boiling below 350◦ C. The following table summarizes some of the crude oils from various locations (Table 1.1). Worthy of note in the above table is the difference in the character of the various crudes that enables refiners to improve their operation by selecting the best crude or crudes that meet their product marketing requirements. For example, where a refining product slate demands a high quantity of ‘no lead’ gasoline and a modest outlet for fuel oils then a crude oil feed such as Hassi Messaoud would be a prime choice. Its selection provides a high naphtha yield with a high naphthene content as catalytic reforming feedstock. Fuel oil in this case also is less than 50% of the barrel. The Iranian light crude would also be a contender but for the undesirably high metal content of the fuel oil (Residuum). In the case of a good middle of the road crude, Kuwait or the Arabian crude oils offer a reasonably balanced product slate with good middle distillate quality and yields. 5 54.0 33.4 1.8 >565 171 53 94 22 100–150 70.3 – 21.4 8.3 >565 100–150 69.5 – 18.2 12.3 46.5 28.2 2.84 Arabian heavy The Bachequero pour point is 16◦ C. residuum temp. ◦ C vanadium, wt ppm nickel, wt ppm Metals in residuum cut, ◦ C paraffins olefins naphthenes aromatics PONA of heavy naphtha, vol% % vol. boiling below 350◦ C gravity, API sulfur, wt% Arabian light 70 188 >538 149–204 54.0 – 30.0 16.0 55.0 33.5 1.4 Iranian light 138 404 >538 149–204 50 – 35 15 53.0 30.8 1.6 Iranian heavy (Gach Saran) 59 18 <3 >370 100–150 67.9 – 22.1 10.0 49.0 31.2 2.5 Kuwait 58 >370 100–150 69.0 265 ppm 21.0 9.8 61.1 35.9 1.95 Iraq (Kirkuk) Table 1.1. Characteristics of some crude oils from various world-wide locations 32 24 <5 <5 >570 100–150 53.0 20 ppm 39.3 7.7 64.0 40.4 0.21 Libyan (Brega) >350 95–175 56.5 – 32.9 10.6 75.2 44.7 0.13 Algerian (Hassi Messaoud) 52 7 >535 100–150 27.5 1.5 57.0 14.0 54.5 26.0 0.23 Nigerian (Bonny medium) 5.04 1.95 >350 100–200 56.5 – 29.5 14.0 61.2 36.3 0.21 North Sea (Ekofisk) 75 437 >350 93–177 27.6 – 58.5 13.9 30.0 16.8 2.4 South American (Bachequero)