Tài liệu Chp%3a10.1007%2f978 1 4614 4310 0_42

Chapter 42 Onion Botanical Name: Synonyms: Family: Common Names: Allium cepa L. Bulb onions, multiplier onions, shallots, potato onion, tree onion, palandu. Liliaceae (Amaryllidaceae or Alliaceae). French: oignon; German: Zwiebel; Italian: cipolla; Spanish: cebolla; Hindi: pyaj. Introduction History Onion is one of the oldest vegetables known to mankind dating back to 3,500 years. Onion plant is the most often depicted plant in Egyptian tomb paintings. An inscription on the Great Pyramid of Cheops indicates “100 talents of silver had been spent on onions, garlic, and radishes with which the slave labor were reimbursed, in lieu of money, for their part in building the pyramid in 2500 BC.” It is the plant that the Greeks and Romans had a love–hate relationship with, both praising its healing properties and damning its odor. It is also the plant that Alexander the Great fed to his troops to give them strength and vigor for battle. The ancient Egyptians loved onion and one of the varieties evoked as a deity and worshipped. The Egyptians ate it raw. Onion was one of the staple foods for the slaves who built the Giant Pyramid. Later the Israelites mourned the loss of Egyptian onions on their way to the Promised Land. It is mentioned in the Bible (Numbers 11: 5). The English name onion is believed to have been derived from the Roman name unionem or unio, referring to its single bulb. Romans introduced onion to Britain, and Emperor Nero took it for cold, coughs, and sore throats. It was regarded as an aphrodisiac and a symbol of fertility. 435 D.J. Charles, Antioxidant Properties of Spices, Herbs and Other Sources, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4310-0_42, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 436 42 Onion Producing Regions Onion is native to western Asia and the Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated worldwide and with many different varieties. The USA, Egypt, Japan, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, France produce dehydrated onions. Botanical Description Onion is a perennial or biennial herb that grows from a bulb up to 1.2 m (3 ft) high. Stems are erect and carry an umbel of flowers. The leaves are narrow, basal, hollow cylindrical, and blue-green in color. Flowers are white or pink or purple, small in globe-shaped umbels. The fruit is a capsule containing black seeds. There are many different varieties of onions, the most common ones being the white globe, yellow globe, and red globe. Parts Used Fleshy bulb (fresh or dry, frozen, chopped onions, powder, charred powder, flakes, onion salt, onion juice), essential oil. Fresh onion comes chopped, sliced, or diced. Dried onion comes granulated, powdered, minced, chopped, ground, or toasted. Flavor and Aroma It has a pungent, sweet aroma. It has a pungent bitter taste and flavor. Active Constituents The activity and pungent smell is due to several sulfur-containing compounds— mainly sulfoxides, but also cepaenes (a-sulfinyl-disulfides). Sulfoxides (such as transS-(1-propenyl)-l-(+)-cysteinesulfoxide, an isomer of alliin) are present in the intact bulb, but they are converted by enzymatic action (by alliinase) into various sulfides that spontaneously form disulfides. These compounds can easily form disulfide bonds with SH-groups of proteins and thus alter their biological activities. Other constituents present are phenolic acids (caffeic, sinapic), flavonoids, sterols, saponins, sugars, vitamins, pectins, anthocyanins, and essential oils Singh et al. (2004). 437 Preparation and Consumption Table 42.1 Nutrient composition and ORAC values of onion powder Nutrient Units Value per 100 g Water g 5.39 Energy kcal 341 Protein g 10.41 Total lipid (fat) g 1.04 Carbohydrate, by difference g 79.12 Fiber, total dietary g 15.2 Sugars, total g 6.63 Calcium, Ca mg 384 Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid mg 23.4 Vitamin B-6 mg 0.718 Vitamin B-12 mcg 0.00 Vitamin A, RAE mcg_RAE 0 Vitamin A, IU IU 0 Vitamin D IU 0 Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) mg 0.27 Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.219 Fatty acids, total monounsaturated g 0.202 Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated g 0.310 H-ORAC mmol TE/100 g 3,858 L-ORAC mmol TE/100 g 431 Total-ORAC mmol TE/100 g 4,289 TP mg GAE/100 g 861 Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 24 (2011) Quercetin is one of the major compounds (Rodriguez Galdon et al. 2008; Lu et al. 2011). The nutritional constituents and ORAC values of onion powder are given in Table 42.1. Preparation and Consumption White onions are the most pungent and strong, yellow onions are slightly milder and sweeter, red (purple) onions are the mildest and also the sweetest. Onions add color, flavor, and crunchiness to foods. The dry or fresh onion is used raw, sauteed, steamed, broiled, boiled, pickled, marinated, stuffed, cooked and pureed, baked, deep fried in batter, and caramelized. Onions are great in cheese spreads, savory pies, stuffings, soups, stocks, casseroles, salads, breads, pates, meat loaves, steamed vegetable combinations, and stir fries. They can be added to sauces, soups, and stews. Yellow onions turn a rich, dark brown when cooked and give French Onion Soup its tangy sweet flavor. It is essential in soups, stocks, marinades, all types of meat and chicken dishes; in salads, pickles, and chutneys. It is an important ingredient in all cuisines worldwide. In India and China, onion is a major ingredient in lots of dishes. Dehydrated onions are used in a variety of dishes like baked goods, pickles, 438 42 Onion relishes, condiments, meat seasonings, Dutch loaf, German bologna, salad dressing mixes. Yellow onions are good for soups, sauces or stews for long cooking. Sweet is good for baked, battered, and fried food. The red onions are used raw in sandwiches and salads. Medicinal Uses and Functional Properties Onion is used in the treatment of appetite loss and prevention of age-related changes in blood vessels (arteriosclerosis). Onions and juice may be used to treat minor digestive disturbances and is used to overcome the immediate effects of insect stings. Juice mixed with sugar or honey is a traditional treatment for colds and cough. The treatment of dysentery, wounds, scars, keloids, asthma, and diabetes are among the many traditional uses. Onion is known to have anticancer, antimicrobial, hypoglycemic, anti-platelet aggregation, anti-asthmatic, antiallergic, lipid- and blood pressure-lowering effects (Williamson and Manach 2005; Sengupta et al. 2004; Colli and Amling 2009; Yu et al. 2010; Taj Eldin et al. 2010; Gorinstein et al. 2011; Jung et al. 2011; Kim et al. 2011; Mantawy et al. 2011; Viry et al. 2011; Zhou et al. 2011). Onion bulbs have been found to be a rich source of dietary flavonoids. Different flavonoids have been characterized and quercetin and its glycosides are the most important ones (Boyer et al. 2005; Wong and Rabie 2008; Slimestad et al. 2007). Higher concentrations of quercetin occur in the outer dry layers of onion bulb (Smith et al. 2003). There are a few studies on the antidiabetic effects of onion skin extract in vivo (Nemeth and Piskula 2007; Kanter et al. 2007). Clinical trials hitherto focused mainly on garlic (A. sativum) but there is good clinical evidence of efficacy of onions in treating appetite loss and preventing arteriosclerosis. Onion acts as stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, lowers blood sugar, cholesterol (Augusti 1990). Onion oil contains heart stimulant, and increases coronary flow (Augusti 1990). Onion is useful in preventing oral infections and toothache (Chevallier 1996). Essential oil of onion was shown to be potent inhibitor of yeast growth (Kim et al. 2004). They were also found to be antibacterial. Oral administration of onion extract was shown to prevent cadmium-induced renal dysfunction (Ige et al. 2009). Quercetin an active constituent of onion, also possesses antimicrobial property (Geoghegan et al. 2010). Onion extract and quercetin play a role in the anti-scar effect in skin through up-regulation of MMP-1 expression, implying this agent is a promising material for reducing scar formation (Cho et al. 2010). Crude Allium cepa was shown to produce hypoglycemic effects, and thus could be used as a dietary supplement in management of type 1 and/or type 2 diabetes mellitus (Taj Eldin et al. 2010). Treatment with onion and garlic methanol extracts was found to prevent loss in body weight, decrease plasma glucose level, and significantly ameliorate the hyperalgesia, TBARS, serum nitrite, and GSH levels in diabetic mice. The onion extract had higher total phenolic content (Bhanot and Shri 2010). Quercetin and ethyl alcohol extract of onion skin were found to have blood glucose lowering potential via the a-glucosidase inhibition Antioxidant Properties 439 (Kim et al. 2011). Zhou et al. (2011) reported that in a meta-analysis, consumption of high levels of Allium vegetables (onions, garlic, shallots, leeks, chives, and so forth) reduced the risk for gastric cancer. Antioxidant Properties The antioxidant activity of onion and onion scales has been studied in several models and assays (Pratt 1965; Gazzani et al. 1998; Cao et al. 1996; Vinson et al. 1998; Yang et al. 2004; Shon et al. 2004; Eguchi et al. 2005; Ly et al. 2005; Yamamoto et al. 2005; Blomhoff 2005; Ramos et al. 2006; Stratil et al. 2006; Slimestad et al. 2007; Huang et al. 2009; Murota et al. 2007; Meyers et al. 2008; Zielinska et al. 2008; Dini et al. 2008; Takahashi and Shibamoto 2008; Gorinstein et al. 2008; Javadzadeh et al. 2009; Khaki et al. 2009; Pellegrini et al. 2009; Veda et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2009; Roldán-Marín et al. 2009; Azuma et al. 2010; Chang et al. 2010; Benitez et al. 2011; Cazzola et al. 2011; Lynett et al. 2011; Shim et al. 2011; Stankevicius et al. 2011). Onion bulbs are a rich source of flavonoids and contribute to the overall intake of flavonoids (Lee et al. 2008). Quercetin, a bioflavonoid found in several fruits and vegetables, including onions, has antioxidant and antiinflammatory activity and prevents cancer (Shaik et al. 2006; Hung 2007), reduces the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke (Edwards et al. 2007; Terao et al. 2008; Mennen et al. 2004). Quercetin was shown to reduce blood pressure in hypertensive subjects (Edwards et al. 2007). Hubbard et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the ingestion of dietary quercetin and platelet function. Ingestion of quercetin was found to inhibit platelet aggregation and the collagen-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of total platelet proteins. Their study implicates quercetin as a dietary inhibitor of platelet cell signaling and thrombus formation. Meyers et al. (2008) reported that onion-fed mice demonstrated the greatest increases in GSH:GSSG ratios and the greatest decreases in protein-mixed disulfide levels of all diets compared. Rutin, a flavonoid in onions, was found to reduce the level of nitrite in LPS-stimulated BALD/c mice, while the elevated levels of TNF-alpha in LPSstimulated animals was lowered (Guruvayoorappan and Kuttan 2007). Galluzzo et al. (2009) reported quercetin to kill HeLa cells through an ERalpha-dependent mechanism involving caspase- and p38 kinase activation and hence has great potential as chemopreventive actions on cancer growth. Rassi et al. (2005) reported both quercetin and rutin to increase nuclear ERbeta protein and decrease ERalpha protein of osteoclast progenitors. In addition rutin was shown to reduce RANK protein, while quercetin promoted apoptosis by cleavage of caspase-8 and caspase-3. Their results suggest the anti-resorbing properties of flavonols to be mediated by ER proteins through inhibition of RANK protein or the activation of caspases. Both red and white varieties of onion were found to preserve the bioactive compounds and antioxidant potentials, and hinder the rise in plasma lipid levels and decrease in plasma antioxidant activity of rats fed cholesterol (Gorinstein et al. 2010). Polyphenols present in a large variety of dietary products including onion, was shown, under gastric 440 42 Onion conditions to reduce nitrite to *NO that in turn exerts a biological impact as a local relaxant (Rocha et al. 2009). Yamamoto et al. (2005) found the Welsh green onions to reduce superoxide generation by suppressing the angiotensine II production and the NADH/NADPH oxidase activity, increase the NO availability in the aorta, and thus lower blood pressure in rats fed with HFS diet. Methanolic extracts of outer scales and edible portions of onion were shown to reduce cerebral infarct size and attenuate impairment in short memory and motor coordination, and this was accompanied by a decrease in mitochondrial TBARS (Shri and Singh 2008). Onion flesh or onion peel was shown to enhance the antioxidant status in aged Sprague Dawley rats and could be beneficial for the elderly in lowering lipid peroxide levels (Park et al. 2007). Quercetin-supplemented diets were shown to lower blood pressure and attenuate cardiac hypertrophy in rats with aortic constriction (Jalili et al. 2006). Nishimura et al. (2006) in their experiment found onion extracts and di-n-propyl trisulfide to have high ameliorative effect of memory impairment. They further found that the hippocampus lipid hydroperoxide in senescence-accelerated mouse P8 was decreased by the administration of di-npropyl trisulfide. These results they report suggest that di-n-propyl trisulfide present in onions ameliorates memory impairment in SAMP8 mouse through its antioxidant effect. Onion peel hydroalcoholic extract was shown to reduce aortic contractions in rats possibly through inhibition of calcium influx but not involving NO, cGMP, endothelium, and prostaglandins (Naseri et al. 2008). This hypotensive effect could be due to quercetin in the extract and possibly the antioxidant activity, and inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cells Ca2+ influx. The effect of methanolic extract of onion on ischemic injury in heart-derived H9c2 cells in vitro and in rat hearts in vivo was studied by Park et al. (2009). They found the extract to attenuate ischemia/hypoxia-induced apoptosis in heart-derived H9c2 cells, through an antioxidant effect. Onion extract and quercetin has been shown to protect against neuronal damage from transient cerebral ischemia (Hwang et al. 2009). They reported quercetin and onion extract to decrease protein levels of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (a marker for LPO) in the ischemic CA1. Vijayababu et al. (2006) found quercetin to be a p53-independent effector of apoptosis in prostate cancer cells via its modulation of the Bax/Bcl-2 protein ratio because there was an increased level of IGFBP-3 associated with increased proapoptotic proteins and apoptosis in response to quercetin. Kumari and Augusti (2007) found that both gugulipid and SMCS cause reduction of endogenous lipogenesis, increase catabolism of lipids and subsequent excretion of metabolic by-products through the intestinal tract. Onion, a rich source of flavonoids, has been shown to favorably modulate the process of carcinogenesis (Krishnaswamy (2008). Onion has been found to reduce the incidence of cancers in several tissues in epidemiological studies (Gao et al. 1999; Dorant et al. 1996). The chemopreventive effects of onion (Wu et al. 2006) are mediated by the enhancement of the activity of specific mixed-function oxidases that depress the activation of carcinogens (Chun et al. 2001), increased synthesis of GSH that directly protects cells from damage by free radicals (Banerjee et al. 2002; Bose et al. 2002; Scharf et al. 2003), induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in cancer cells (Sun et al. 2004), and induction of phase II enzymes which enhance Antioxidant Properties 441 detoxification and excretion of potential carcinogens and reduction of the formation of DNA adducts (Munday et al. 2003). In their study on quercetin, Hung (2007) found it to inhibit A549 lung carcinoma cell proliferation and this was associated with the activation of extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK). Wenzel et al. (2004) found quercetin from onions to alter the levels of a variety of proteins involved in growth, differentiation, and apoptosis of colon cancer cells. This explains the anticancer activities of quercetin. Apigenin, a flavone, abundantly present in onions has been shown to have cancer chemopreventive effects in an organ-specific format and could be used for the development of cancer chemopreventive agent (Patel et al. 2007). Onion extracts have also been used in the prevention and treatment of hypertrophic scars (Zurada et al. 2006). Hubbard et al. (2006) reported that those who preferentially consume high amounts of quercetin-containing foods like onion have a reduced risk of thrombosis and potential CVD risk. They found collagen-stimulated platelet aggregation to be greatly inhibited after ingestion of high-quercetin soup in a time-dependent manner. Al-Fayez et al. (2006) demonstrated that quercetin from onion and apples regulates COX-mediated and PGE-2 production and their ability to attenuate prostanoid levels could be contributing to their chemopreventive efficacy. Wu et al. (2006) in their research on onion oil found it to have chemopreventive action by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in tumor cells. Onion extract was found to be significant for glucose concentration and body weight for its antidiabetic effects. Thus onion intake is effective for lowering plasma glucose concentrations and body weight (Kook et al. 2009). Oral administration of onion was found to reduce the serum uric acid levels in hyperuricemic rats and inhibited xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) and xanthine oxidase (XO) activities (Haidari et al. 2008). El-Demerdash et al. (2005) investigated the effects of onion on the biochemical parameters, enzyme activities, and lipid peroxidation in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. They found the levels of glucose, urea, creatinine, and bilirubin to be significantly increased in the plasma of alloxan-diabetic rats compared to the control group. The activities of AST, ALT, LDH and AlP, AcP were significantly increased in plasma and testes of alloxan-diabetic rats, while these activities decreased in the liver compared to the control group, the brain LDH was increased. The concentration of TBARs and the activity of glutathione S-transferase in plasma, liver, testes, brain, and kidney were increased in alloxan-diabetic rats. The altered parameters were restored to normal levels with repeated doses of onion juice. These results clearly show the antioxidant and antihyperglycemic effects of onion juice (El-Demerdash et al. 2005). Onion was shown to attenuate the Cd-induced oxidative damage in rat liver possibly via lipid peroxidation and enhanced antioxidant defense system (Obioha et al. 2009). Ola-Mudathir et al. (2008) studied protective role of onion on Cd-induced testicular damage and spermiotoxicity. They found the aqueous extracts of onion to offer protection against Cd-induced testicular oxidative damage and spermiotoxicity by reducing lipid peroxidation and increasing antioxidant defense in rats. Suru (2008) studied the protective effects of onion on Cd-induced kidney damage in male Wistar rats. The levels of renal LPO and GST were reduced while the levels of renal 442 42 Onion GSH, SOD, CAT, and Na+/K+-ATPase were decreased in rats that received Cd alone. Treatment with onion extract resulted in a significant dose-dependent restoration of these parameters. Izawa et al. (2008) reported the protective effects of onion and quercetin against the male reproductive toxicity induced by diesel exhaust particles (DEP). Haleagrahara et al. (2009) studied the effect of quercetin on stress-induced changes in oxidative biomarkers in the hypothalamus of rats and found the antioxidant action of quercetin to be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of stress-induced oxidative damage in the brain. They found forced swimming stress to produce a severe oxidative damage in hypothalamus of rats but treatment with quercetin significantly attenuated these stress-induced changes. Mastrangelo et al. (2006) studied whether quercetin can afford protection from chromosome breaks induced by atrazine. They found quercetin to significantly reduce the frequency of total aberrations induced by atrazine. Their results suggest that quercetin may protect against the genotoxic effects of atrazine. Lines and Ono (2006) showed that FRS 1000, a beverage containing flavonoids from onion peels improved male sexual function. This was because FRS 1000 strongly inhibited phosphodiesterase 5A (PDE 5A) which is important for treatment of erectile dysfunction. They also found that quercetin was the flavonoid responsible for this activity. Murota et al. (2004) showed that quercetin-4¢-glucoside, present in onion serves as a favorable antioxidant source for suppressing iron-induced oxidative stress in the intestinal tract. The dried skin of red onion possesses ingredients with potential for skin-whitening cosmetics with anti-tyrosinase activity (Arung et al. 2011a). Of the three phenolic compounds, quercetin was found to have the highest antioxidative activity (Xue et al. 2011). In enhanced meats (pork loin, belly cuts), onion showed strong antioxidant effect equal to sodium ascorbate and also showed strong antimicrobial effect by inhibiting the growth of total bacteria (Park et al. 2008). Irradiation increased the TBARS values of control ground beef, but addition of 0.5 % onion reduced oxidative changes during storage (Yang et al. 2011). Quercetin-3¢-O-betad-glucoside from the methanol extract of dried skin of A. cepa, inhibited melanin formation in B16 melanoma cells and mushroom tyrosinase. In addition, it exhibited strong antioxidant activity of 3.04 mmol TE/mmol. Thus quercetin-3¢-O-betad-glucoside could be useful for treating hyperpigmentation and for protecting against oxidative stress (Arung et al. 2011b). Regulatory Status GRAS 182.20. Standard ISO 5559 (Dehydrated onion). References 443 References Al-Fayez M, Cai H, Tunstall R, Steward WP, Gescher AJ (2006) Differential modulation of cyclooxygenase-mediated prostaglandin production by the putative cancer chemopreventive flavonoids tricin, apigenin and quercetin. 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