vinh university
Foreign language department
= = = =
Ph¹m ThÞ Quyªn
An investigation into the common errors in paragraph
writing made by the second year students at Vinh
University and some suggested solutions
(mét cuéc ®iÒu tra vÒ lçi cña sinh viªn n¨m thø hai ë trêng ®¹i häc vinh trong viÖc häc viÕt ®o¹n v¨n
vµ mét sè gîi ý)
graduation thesis
Field: methodology
Vinh, May 2010
Introduction
I.1. Reasons of the study
English has been considered as an international language. It is widely used and it is
becoming a more and more important subject in schools and colleges. However, it is not
easy to learn English; students usually face errors in using it, especially in writing skill.
The author chooses the topic “An investigation into the common errors in paragraph
writing made by the second year students at Vinh University and some suggested
solutions” because of the some following reasons.
Firstly, among four basic language skills, writing plays a very important role in
learning and paragraph writing is the first main part in the curriculum of students in
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university. The study is chosen to investigate the attitudes of students towards writing
skill and paragraph writing as well.
Secondly, the structure of entrance University tests is focused much on grammar
aspects, so that students have few opportunities to practice writing paragraphs. Moreover,
writing skill is not really paid attention to in many schools in Vietnam. Therefore,
students do not have much experience in writing skill. They feel confused and make
errors in writing paragraph. In this thesis, the author points out the errors rate in each
category.
Thirdly, writing has been considered as a difficult and boring subject by second
language learners. The entrance quality of university students is lower and lower in the
recent years. It takes much time to make progress in this skill. The author wants to do
something to help students overcome and avoid making some common written English
errors by giving out some suggested solutions.
Last but not least, the author herself will be a language teacher in the future. The
author considers this study as a good opportunity to improve her written English and get
some useful experience for her teaching job.
The above reasons have encouraged the author to carry out the survey titled “An
investigation into the common errors in paragraph writing made by the second year
students at Vinh University and some suggested solutions”. The author hopes that it may
contribute to the quality of teaching and learning writing skill in general and paragraph
writing in particular.
I.2. Aims of the study
The study is conducted with the following aims:
Investigate the attitudes of students toward writing skill and paragraph writing.
Analyze the types of errors occurring in paragraph writing of second year students
at Vinh University.
Make some suggested solutions in the learning and teaching process in order to
help students improve their writing skill.
I.3. Research questions of the study
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The aims of this study are to find out the answers to the three following research
questions:
1. What are students’ attitudes towards writing skill in general and paragraph
writing in particular?
2. What is the current situation of errors in paragraph writing of the second year
students at Vinh University?
3. What suggestions can be made in the learning and teaching process in order to
help students improve their paragraph writing?
I.4. Methods of the study
To complete this study, the following methods were employed:
Analytic and synthetic methods.
Comparative and contrastive methods.
Descriptive methods.
Firstly, the author used analytic and synthetic methods to review the theories
related to the matter concerned to form a framework for the analysis, and then collected
books and materials to find and select necessary information.
Secondly, the data collected from the survey were analyzed and sorted to make a
clear distinction about the students’ attitudes towards writing skill and paragraph writing.
Besides, the results of collected data were also used to analyze the students’ common
errors of paragraph writing.
Finally, descriptive methods were used to make a description about some suitable
ways for improving the teaching and learning of paragraph writing.
I.5. Scope of the study
The focus of the study is to investigate common errors in paragraph writing made
by second year students at Vinh University. So the scope is limited to the teaching and
learning of paragraph writing only. The subjects of the study are the 2 nd year EFL students
of writing at FLD, Vinh University.
I.6. Design of the study
Apart from acknowledgements, tables of contents and appendices, this paper is
structured in three main parts: introduction, investigation and conclusion.
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The first part ‘Introduction’ presents the rationale, aims, objectives, research
questions, scope of the study and also its design.
The second part ‘Development’ includes three chapters. Chapter I reviews the
related literature which includes some discussions on paragraphs, errors and error
analysis. Chapter II is the main part of the study (the survey) that includes the description
of the subjects, setting, data collection instruments and procedures. It also presents the
results collected from the questionnaire and the analysis of errors made by students from
their homework papers and midterm tests in the form of tables and figures. This is
followed by the discussion and analysis of the data. Chapter III includes the implications
and suggestions for teaching paragraph writing.
The third part “Conclusion” summarizes the main points and the achievement of
the study. Recommendations for further research are also made in this part.
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Paragraphs
1.1.1. Definitions of a paragraph
There are many different definitions of paragraph. According to Carol Pemberton
(2000), a paragraph is defined as “a basic unit of organization in writing in which a group
of related sentences develops one main idea, the topic of paragraph. Each paragraph is a
separated unit. It is marked by indenting the first word from the left-hand margin or by
leaving extra space above and below the paragraph. A paragraph can be as short as one
sentence or as long as twelve sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant;
however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly”. Another
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definition of a paragraph by Rook G.M (1889) is: “a paragraph is a group of sentences
which logically develops one subject”.
Alice Savage and Masoud Shafiei (2007) consider a paragraph as a group of
sentences about a topic. A paragraph is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing
dealing with a particular point or idea. Paragraphs consist of one or more sentences. The
start of a paragraph is indicated by beginning on a new line. Sometimes the first line is
indented. A written work - be it an essay or a story - is about an idea or concept. An essay
explains it; a story narrates it. To help the readers understand and enjoy it, the explanation
or narration is broken down into units of text, the paragraph. In an essay, each paragraph
explains or demonstrates a key point or thought of the central idea, usually to inform or
persuade. In fiction, each paragraph serves to advance the plot, develop a character,
describe a scene or narrate an action - all to entertain the readers. All paragraphs support
each other, leading the readers from the first idea to the final resolution of the written
work.
1.1.2. Parts of paragraph
According to Alice Savage and Masoud Shafiei (2007), a paragraph has three main
parts: the topic sentence, the supporting sentences and the concluding sentence.
1.1.2.1. The topic sentence
Every good paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the topic and
controlling idea of the paragraph. It is a complete sentence. It is usually (not always) the
first sentence in the paragraph.
A topic sentence is the most important sentence in the paragraph. It briefly
indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss. For this reason, the topic sentence is a
helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can see what information to
include and what information to exclude. The reader can see what the paragraph is going
to be about and is, therefore, better prepared to understand it.
There are three important points to remember about the topic sentence:
(i) A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains a
subject, a verb, and
complement. Eg: The advantages of living in a big city. (not a complete sentence)
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(ii) A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only
the main idea. It does not give both any specific details and too general ideas. Eg: Living
in a big city is good for you (too general)
(iii) A topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic
names the subject or the main idea of the paragraph. The controlling idea makes a specific
comment about the topic, which indicates what the rest of the paragraph will say about the
topic.
Ex:
There are three main advantages of living in a big city.
Controlling idea
Topic
In this example, the topic is named: living in a big city. A specific comment is then
made about the topic: they should be optional for three advantages. From this sentence,
the reader immediately knows that the rest of the paragraph will discuss three advantages
of the living in a big city, (good education, health service,..).
1.1.2.2 The supporting sentences
Supporting sentences add information about the topic and the controlling idea. The
writer must develop that subject so that the reader understands your ideas. There are
different ways to develop and clarify a topic sentence:
(i) Example: is a specific instance that explains a more general idea. The writer
can remind their readers that they are giving examples by using signal words or phrases
such as: for example, for instance, like, such as…so on.
(ii) Detail: is a particular or characteristic of a whole thing or a whole idea. Details
are frequently used in a description.
(iii) Anecdote: is a short, entertaining account of some happening. It is usually
personal.
(iv) Fact: is something which is objectively verifiable. A statistics is a numerical
fact which presents significant information about a given topic.
1.1.2.3 The concluding sentence
The concluding is like the topic sentence because both are general statements.
However, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence, a general statement that
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introduces the topic to be discussed in the paragraph. The concluding sentence is also a
general statement, but is the last sentence and ends the paragraph.
A concluding sentence is not absolutely necessary; in fact, a concluding is not
customary for every paragraph in a multi-paragraph essay. However, in a single
paragraph, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader because it signals the end of the
paragraph and because it is the reminder of the important points. In facts, the concluding
sentence can be written like the topic sentence but in different words. E.g. In conclusion,
gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
In addition to restating the main idea, the concluding sentence may warn the
reader, make a prediction, or give an opinion about the topic.
The concluding sentence serves three purposes:
(i) It signals the end of the paragraph
(ii) It summarizes the main points of the paragraph.
(iii) It gives a final comment on your topic and leaves the reader with the most
important ideas to think about.
The writer should begin the concluding sentence with a signal phrase that tells the
readers that the paragraph is completed such as: finally, in conclusion, in summary,
therefore, thus, as a result, indeed, so on.
1.1.3. How is the English Paragraph developing?
According to Carol Pemberton (2000), in English two types of paragraphs are
logical and direct: Inductive paragraph and deductive paragraph.
A deductive paragraph has three parts that provide direct logical development.
These three parts appear in the paragraph as shown in figure 1:
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Paragraph
Topic sentence
- Supporting sentence
- Supporting sentence
- And so forth
Concluding sentence
Figure 1: The three parts of a deductive paragraph
Inductive pattern paragraphs place the topic sentence at the end. The body
of the paragraph introduces first one, then two, and often more pieces of related
information. Together, these ideas share common concepts that lead to a usually
predictable conclusion or observation at the end. This conclusion or observation
constitutes the topic sentence. The three parts of an inductive paragraph are shown
the following figure:
Paragraph
- Supporting sentence
-
Supporting sentence
-
And so forth
Topic sentence
Figure 2: The three parts of an inductive paragraph
1.2 Types of paragraphs
According to Alice Savage and Masoud Shafiei (2007), there are different types of
paragraphs:
(i)
Descriptive paragraph: the writer describes a person, or thing, or a place so that
the reader can picture it in his or her mind.
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(ii)
Example paragraph: the writer gives examples so that the reader clearly
understands the writer’s idea about a topic. The effective example should be
specific and relate clearly to the controlling idea.
(iii)
Process paragraph: the writer explains how to do something step by step. The
reader should be able to follow the steps to get a desired result.
(iv)
Opinion paragraph: the writer presents an opinion and tries to persuade readers
that the opinion is a good one.
(v)
Narrative paragraph: the writer tells a story that sets the background for an
event, describes the event, and often comments on the event.
(vi)
Cause and effect paragraph: the writer attempts to show how events are
influenced by or caused by others factors.
(vii) Comparison and contrast paragraph: the writer develops a topic by examining its
similarities or differences to another thing, process, or state. Comparison
emphasizes the similarities, and contrasts the differences.
1.3. Errors in language learning process
1.3.1. Definitions of errors
Errors play an important part in English process because they are analyzed to
provide learners with a notice and a try to avoid making them. So far, definitions of error
are not the same among different researchers.
The answers to the question “what is an error in language learning?” can be
understood more fully when the comparison between “an error” and “a mistake” is
made.
Though both errors and mistakes are something wrong in learning process of a
language, there are differences between them which are helpful for us to understand the
definition of error better.
Edge (1989:9-11) claimed that there are three types of mistakes including errors.
They are slips, errors and attempts:
(i)
Slips are caused by carelessness. The learners can self-correct them if
pointed out and give the chance.
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For example: *She left school two years ago and now works in a factory.
(ii)
Errors are wrong forms that the students can not self-correct even if
these wrong forms are pointed out. However, “the teacher can organize what the
students wanted to produce and think that the class is familiar with the correct
form”.
For example: *although the people are very nice, but I don’t like it here.
(iii) Attempts are almost incomprehensible mistakes, and the students have no
ideas how to structure what they want to mean or their intended meaning and
structure are not clear to the teacher.
For example:*this, no, really, for always my time...and then I happy.
(Edge, 1989:11)
In his opinion, the learners themselves can self-correct as slips are caused by
carelessness not by the lack of knowledge of a language. In contrast, the learners
themselves can not correct errors and attempts since they are caused by the lack of
knowledge.
To distinguish errors and mistakes, H D Brown (1994:2000) defined that an error is
“noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner”. And mistake is defined as “a performance error
that is either a random guess or a “slip” in that it is failure to utilize a known system
correctly”.
Ellis Rod (1997) shares the same point of view: “errors reflect gaps between
learner’s knowledge”. They occur because the learner does not know what is correct.
Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance. They occur because in a particular
instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows”.
As stated in the definitions above, both errors and mistakes are deviations in the
usage. They are incorrect use in target language made by the second language learners.
However, errors and mistakes differ in the cause. If errors are caused by lack of
knowledge, mistakes are caused by lack of intention, fatigue, and carelessness. Thus
teachers do not usually need to correct mistakes, errors are more serious, especially errors
in language already learnt in class.
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There are many ways of classifying the types of errors. In this study, errors are
categorized into six types:
(i)
Grammatical error: can be the learners’ wrong use of structures, tenses, articles,
nouns, and so on.
e.g.: That morning, when I was asking my mother for 5 VND someone rings the bell.
I can meeting some idols or visiting famous football grounds.
(ii)
Lexical error: (1) the student used wrong word or word choice in a paper, (2)
the student could not find out a correct word to express ideas.
e.g.: I can watch some idols or see famous football grounds.
(iii)
Punctuation error: refers to the case: the students use punctuations wrongly or
writing paragraph without punctuations.
e.g.: “otherwise, USA is famous for many beautiful places”
(iv)
Spelling error: refers to students write the words incorrectly as the original
ones.
e.g.: Moreovere, people are very friendly
It is cetain that the poor are alway unhappy.....
(v)
Content error: refers to reader’s refusal to the meaning of the students’ writing
about irrelevant information.
(vi)
Style and culture error: refers to the case that students (1) use the spoken style
in written style and (2) students’ writing is not accepted in other culture environment.
e.g.: Come here, first of al, I want to say about people (My data)
(vii) Form error: refers to the case that student use the wrong structure of a paragraph.
1.3.2. The significance of learners’ errors in the process of teaching and learning
Corder (1981) states that learners’ errors are significant to teachers, researchers and
especially to learners.
“A learner’s errors, then, provide evidence of the system of the language that
he is using (i.e. has learned) at a particular point in the course (and it must be
repeated that he is using some system, although it is not yet the right system).
They are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they tell
him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the
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learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn.
Second, they provide to the research evidence of how language is learnt or
acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his
discovery of the language. Thirdly (and in a sense this is their most important
aspect) they are indispensable to the learner himself, because we regard the
making of errors as a device the learner uses in order to learn. It is a way the
learner has of testing his hypotheses about the nature of the language he is
learning. The making of errors then is a strategy employed both by children
acquiring their mother tongue and those learning a second language.”
(Corder, 1981:11)
Learners’ errors tell the teacher whether their students have progressed or not,
which level or stage their students at and learners’ errors are also helpful for the teacher to
decide what he should teach in the course. Moreover, to the learners, their own errors are
really useful for them to develop their target language as “making errors as a device the
learner uses in order to learner”. (Corder, 1981:11)
1.3.3 Errors analysis
Error analysis, a branch of applied linguistics, emerged in the sixties, is the study
and analysis of errors made by second language learners. Its primary focus is on the
evidence that learners’ errors provide with an understanding of underlying process of
second language study. Corder (1974) says, “By describing and clarifying his errors in
linguistics terms we build up the picture of the features of the language which are causing
him learning problems”. Therefore, error analysis plays an important part in improving
the learning and teaching quality.
Error analysis is carried out in five successive stages as mentioned by Corder
(1974). These are:
-
Identification: to recognize an error, one should first of all know what “error” and
“mistake”.
-
Classification: classifying errors can help us to diagnose learner’s learning
problems at any stage of their development.
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-
Explanation: in this step, we have to explain why learners make errors and the
causes of errors.
-
Evaluation: basing on the data of survey, we will know how many percents of
students do well or badly.
-
Correction: how should the teacher correct the students? What kinds of feedback
should they give? Does each of error need to be treated?
Error analysis has an important role in finding these answers to the questions.
1.3.4. Causes of errors
There are many causes leading to errors in foreign language learning. According to
Richard (1974:174), errors produced by learners can be inter-lingual, intra-lingual and
development errors. The inter-lingual errors are errors caused by the interference of the
learner’s mother tongue. The intra-lingual errors are those which reflect the general
characteristics of rule learning, such as faulty generalization, incomplete application of
rules and failure to learn condition under which rules apply. And the developmental errors
illustrate the learner attempting to build up hypotheses about the English language from
his limited experience of it in the classroom or textbooks. He claims that there are 5 main
causes of errors. They are mother tongue interference, over-generalization, ignorance of
rule restriction, incomplete application of rules, false concepts hypothesized, and error
correction.
1.3.4.1. Mother tongue interference
All second language learners have already acquired their language. This helps
them have ideas of how language works and form the habit of learning it. However,
mother tongue or first language not only has great effect on second language learning but
also is the major cause leading to errors.
Although young children seem to be able to learn a foreign language quite easily
and to produce new sounds very effectively, almost older learners experience considerable
difficulty. The sound system (phonology) and the grammar of the first language impose
themselves on the new language and this leads to the wrong choice of vocabulary and
grammatical patterns.
E.g.: John is ill for four days.
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These sentences were clearly translated from the learner’s own language. He used
the features of his previous mother tongue experience in his attempts to write in the
foreign language. Thus, the learner has committed errors since the correct sentences must
be:
-
John has been ill for four days.
According to Lado (1957: 2), “Individual transfers the forms and meanings and
this distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to foreign
language and culture”. James Carl, (1998: 179) claim that in the case that both L1 and L2
are similar, the learners benefit from their positive transfer. However, if there are
differences between the two languages, he is encumbered by negative transfer or
interference. And errors are generated from negative transfer.
1.3.4.2. Over-Generalization
The mentalist theory claims that errors are inevitable because they reflect various
stages in the language development of the learner. This claims that the learner processes
new language data in his mind and procedures rules for its production, based on the
evidence. Where the data are inadequate or the evidence only partial, such rules may well
produce the following pattern:
Where you went yesterday?
Where you did go yesterday?
She drinked the lemonade.
The correct answers should be:
Where did you go yesterday?
She drank the lemonade.
Richard (1974) defines over-generalization as “the use of previously available
strategies in new situation…in second language learning…some of these strategies will
prove helpful in organizing the fact about the second language, but other, perhaps dues to
superficial similarities, will be misleading and inapplicable.” Over-generalization covers
instances where learners create a deviant structure on the basic of their experience of
other structures in the target language.
e.g.: It is occurs.
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W e are not work.
The correct answers should be:
e.g.: It occurs.
We do not work.
1.3.4.3. Ignorance of rule restrictions
The situation is a failure of learners to observe the restrictions of existing structure.
It means that the application of rules to contexts where they do not apply. Ignorance of
rule restrictions happen since the learner is making use of a previously acquired rule in a
new situation.
e.g.: The man who I saw him.
Some rule restriction errors may be accounted for in terms of analogy or may result
from the rote learning of rules. Analogy seems to be a major factor in the misuse of
prepositions. The learner attempts by analogy to use the same preposition with similar
verbs.
e.g.: He show me the book. (leads to) He explained me the book.
Ask him to do it
( produces) Make him to do it.
1.3.4.4. Incomplete application of rules
This cause contrasts to over-generalization which is also called undergeneralization. Learner has applied only some rules in new situations.
Richard (1974) also illustrated errors caused by incomplete application of rules:
e.g.: Nobody knew where was Barbie. (where Barbie was)
Incomplete application of rules involves a failure to learn the more complex types
of structure because the learner finds he can achieve effective communication by using
relative simple rules.
1.3.4.5. False concepts hypothesized
This cause derives from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the target
language. These are sometimes due to poor gradation of teaching items.
e.g.: He is speaks French.
‘is’ may be understood to be the responding marker of the present tense.
One day it was happened
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‘was’ interpreted as a marker of the past tense.
Richard (1974) has traced errors of errors of this sort to classroom presentation,
and to presentation which is based on contrastive analysis of English and another
language or on contrasts within English itself. E.g.: many students can not distinguish
between too and so. As a result; they make errors when using them.
1.3.5. Error correction
Error correction is said to be an argumentative part in the process of teaching and
learning. The following questions posed by Hendrickson (1978) can be helpful for the
teachers when deciding how to treat to students’ oral errors:
1. Should learner errors be corrected?
2. If so, when should learner errors be corrected?
3. Which learner errors should be corrected?
4. How should learner errors be corrected?
5. Who should correct learner errors?
For the first question “should learner errors be corrected?” Some researchers say
that teachers should not make a point of error correction because it is considered to be a
kind of criticism or punishment, and errors would be self-corrected by learners.
On the contrary, discussing error correction, some famous error linguists such as
James (1998) and Edge (1989) suggest that it is necessary to correct errors because it is
useful for both teachers and learners. In his book “Mistakes and Correction”, Edge
(1989:20) argues that “teachers decide to correct our students and we have to be sure that
we are using correction positively to support learning”. Sharing Edge’s point of view,
James (1998) claims that learners want all their written errors corrected and correction
will help them improve. He also adds that correction is essential in the cases where the
language processing task is difficult, because in such cases learners will be unable to selfcorrect.
It is hoped that error correction will help learners be aware of their errors more
fully. And their subsequent writing will carry less errors of the same type.
The next question that the language should consider achieving the best reaction to
learners’ errors is “when learner errors should be corrected?” Teachers should choose
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only particular errors to concentrate on a time of making corrections so as not to depress
learners. In fact, if all errors are selected, students will feel bored and as a result, this will
decrease their motivation. It is also advisable that teachers should make learners pay more
attention to the errors which have been repeated by many members in class, or to
important errors which affect clear communication.
When accuracy is the aim of the activity, students are involved an accuracy work
such as the study of a piece of grammar, pronunciation exercise or some vocabulary work.
It is essential of the teachers to point out and correct students’ errors. (Harmer, 2001:105).
Moreover, students should given sufficient time and should be encouraged to correct their
own mistakes. It is also found that increasing wait-time by an extra second or two enables
learners to self-correct 50-90 percent of their errors (Walz 1982).
When the aim of the activity is fluency, the teachers in this case should delay the
corrective feedback until the end of the activity (Huge, 2000).
Besides the aims of activity, the language teachers should also notice the stage of
the activity, the types of errors and the students’ expectation of assistance.
Another question is “which learner errors should be corrected?” It is necessary
that teachers should know how to correct learners’ errors effectively and avoid using
correction strategies that might embarrass or frustrate learners. Some error analysis and
methodologists like Allwright (1975) and Hendrickson (1977) suggest that there are five
techniques for correcting written errors:
a. The teacher gives the sufficient dues to enable self-correction to be made.
b. The teacher corrects the script.
c. The teacher deals with errors through marginal comments and footnotes.
d. The teacher explains orally to individual students.
e. The teacher uses errors as an illustration for the class explanation.
Allwright (1975) makes a conclusion that any error correction process includes
some of the following general features: indication that an error was committed;
identification of the type of error, location of the error, mention of who made the error,
selection of a remedy, provision of a correct model, the furnishing of an opportunity for a
new attempt, indication of improvement and the offering of praise.
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One more question is “how should learner errors be corrected?” The teachers
should decide how to decide how to correct learners’ errors in order not to embarrass
learners. The techniques for correction are various. However, it seems to be impossible to
decide which one is the most effective technique.
James (1998) suggests some opinions and principles for error correction as
follows:
-
First, that is “correct effectively”, teachers’ correction techniques help
learners
to progress in accuracy and fluency.
-
Second, correction should be sensitive and non-threatening form.
-
Third, correction must be matched to student preferences.
-
Fourth, the correction should have two stages: form-focused correction at the
practice phase and function-focused correction in the production phase.
The last question is “who should correct learner errors?” In classroom, the
teacher, the student who makes the error or other students can correct errors. Most of
language teachers expect the learners to self-correct their errors. Once students can selfcorrect, they can recognize the wrongness in his/her cognition. In fact, students are
encouraged to self-correct but not all of them succeed, so teachers should increase the
wait-time for them.
Edge (1989) indicates the benefits of peer-correction as follow:
Firstly, when a learner makes an error, and another learner corrects it, both of them
are involved in listening to and thinking about the language.
Secondly, when a teacher encourages learners to correct each other’s errors, the
teachers get a lot of essential information about the students’ current TL competence
at that time.
Thirdly, peer-correction helps learners cooperate and helps make them less
dependent on teachers.
Fourthly, students will be able to help each other learn when they work in pair and
groups, when the teachers can not hear what is said.
(Edge, 1989:26)
In summary, students’ participation in error correction is very important. The
discussion between the teacher and students is very helpful. Students understand their
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errors and are finally encouraged to express them more accurately. For effective error
correction, teacher should write on the blackboard the most important errors from
learners’ pieces of writing in class for discussion.
Chapter 2: The Survey
Introduction
In this chapter, the author presents the overview of the survey, which includes the
aims, the description of the subjects, research setting, and the ways to carry out the study.
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The results of the study are presented followed by the discussion and analysis of the data.
The results are statistically presented in the forms of tables, or charts.
2.1. The overview of the survey
2.1.1. Aims of the survey
The data has been collected from the students’ questionnaire and the analysis of
the students’ written papers. These are used to answer the following research questions:
1. What are students’ attitudes towards writing skill in general and paragraph
writing in particular?
2. What is the current situation of errors in paragraph writing made by the second
year students at Vinh University?
The results from the survey questionnaire and the analysis of the students’ errors
helped the researcher make some implications and suggestions for improving the teaching
and learning of paragraph writing.
2.1.2. Research setting
The research was carried out in 3 classes (49A1, 49B1, 49B2) of Foreign
Language Department at Vinh University, where the researcher has been studying for over
3 years.
2.1.3. Description of subjects
The subjects are 118 second year students of English majors at Vinh University.
These students are studying in their third term. They are aged from twenty to twenty-two.
Most of them are females. At the time the students had 2 periods of writing a week. Most
of them have been studying English for 5 or 6 years. They are almost at the same level:
intermediate.
2.1.4. Instrumentation
The procedure of the study is as follows: First, a survey questionnaire was
distributed to second year students to investigate their attitudes towards the teaching and
learning of writing skill in general and paragraph writing in particular. Second, 200
written papers of the students were analyzed to find out the common errors in paragraph
writing. Then these were followed by the data discussion and error analysis of collected
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