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The study has been completed at 2 the College of Foreign Languages, University of Da Nang 1 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF DANANG NGUYỄN THÙY UYÊN A STUDY ON ABSTRACT NOUNS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE Subject Area : The English Language Code : 60.22.15 M.A. THESIS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (A SUMMARY) Da Nang, 2011 Supervisor: TRẦẦN QUANG HẢI, Ph.D Examiner 1: ……………………………….. Examiner 2: ……………………………….. The thesis will be orally defended at the Examining Committee Time : Venue : University of Quang Trung The origin of the thesis is accessible for the purpose of reference at: The College of Foreign Languages Library, University of Da Nang Information Resources Centre, University of Da Nang 3 4 CHAPTER 1 1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION 1.2.1. Aims 1.1. RATIONALE The aim of the study is to clarify formation, classification, Nouns are the first part of speech that we come across in any language. If a person in a foreign language situation knows some ontological metaphors, and conceptual metaphors abstract nouns in English and in Vietnamese. nouns then he/she is able to communicate somewhat. Nouns are the 1.2.2. Objectives words that name things. We humans always need to name things that The study is expected to: we use, see, and imagine. Clearly, nouns play an important role in - Finding formation, classification, ontological metaphors, and communication. The noun category can be further subdivided into conceptual metaphors of abstract nouns in English and in Vietnamese. different noun classes according to semantic and syntactic criteria. - Finding similarities and differences between the formation, One class of nouns is abstract. Abstract nouns are words that signify classification, ontological metaphors, and conceptual metaphors of ‘abstract’ ideas, which cannot be experienced directly through the abstract nouns in English and those in Vietnamese. five senses. They are words for feelings, qualities and all other kinds - Offering some implications for language teaching and of abstract concepts. They are names given to intangible ideas which learning. form a part of our life. Without these nouns, expression of our 1.3. THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY feelings and ideas would be impossible. So, abstract nouns are very Due to lack of time, knowledge and shortage of materials, the common and important in communication. That’s the reason why I study only focuses on 30 abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese am eager to study on abstract nouns and choose the topic: “A study and similarities and differences between them through the conceptual on abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese” metaphors, especially through the ontological metaphor. Cognitive linguistics holds that language is part of cognitive 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS system which comprises perception, emotion, categorization, This study aims to seek the answers to the following questions: abstraction process, and reasoning. Lakoff claims that conceptual 1. What are the formations of abstract nouns in English and metaphor is defined as a cross- domain mapping in the conceptual system, and metaphors are expressions that are the surface realization of such cross-domain mapping. Thus, metaphor is an instrument which makes us understand abstract things well by more specific ones. This is also the aim of this paper. Vietnamese? 2. What are the classifications of abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese? 3. How are abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese understood through ontological metaphors? 5 4. How are abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese understood through conceptual metaphors? 5. What are similarities and differences between these nouns? 1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY  The result of this study will help Vietnamese learners of 6 2.2.2.2. Classification of Noun 2.2.2.3. Abstract Nouns 2.3. VIETNAMESE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.3.1. The Vietnamese Language 2.3.2. Linguistic Features of Vietnamese Nouns English improve their understanding of the field, get better results in 2.3.2.1. Definition subjects such as grammar, vocabulary, composition, translation, 2.3.2.2. Classification of Nouns communication and so on. 2.3.2.3. Abstract Nouns  The result of this study will also help to raise the awareness of the importance of abstract nouns in using language.  The result of this study will also help people realize that 2.4. A CROSS-LINGUISTIC COMPARISON OF VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH 2.4.1. Lexical Function metaphors are omnipresent in our everyday language and that we 2.4.2. Classifiers are using them almost constantly, maybe unconsciously. 2.4.3. Word Formation 1.6. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY This thesis consists of 5 chapters. 2.5. CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR THEORY 2.6. CLASSIFICATION OF METAPHORS 2.6.1. Structural Metaphors CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL 2.6.2. Orientational Metaphors 2.6.3. Ontological Metaphors BACKGROUND As the background for my study on abstract nouns in English CHAPTER 3 and Vietnamese, this chapter concerns itself with previous studies of the research and a brief view of the theoretical background for the research. METHODOLOGY 3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN On the purpose of making a study of abstract nouns in English 2.1. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES and Vietnamese, we’ve decided to carry out the study through 2.2. ENGLISH THEORETICAL BACKGROUND qualitative and quantitative approaches. 2.2.1. The English Language 2.2.2. Linguistic Features of English Nouns 2.2.2.1. Definition 3.2. RESEARCH SUBJECT Firstly, we study the information of abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese 7 8 Secondly, we study the classification of abstract nouns in the both language 1. We collect as many materials related to the research as possible. Thirdly, we divide abstract nouns into three groups: 2. We find out the general and specific syntactic features of psychological & mental states and events, social groups and abstract nouns in both languages. We describe, in turn, the definition, progresses, personal experiences and events. In each group, we formation, and classification of abstract nouns. Through the choose ten abstract nouns and study them under the light of description, we can obtain a sound knowledge of abstract nouns, ontological metaphors (the entity metaphor, the substance metaphor, which is a good basic for us to discover them in metaphors. the container metaphor and the personification) 3. We describe fully the ontological metaphors of the chosen Fourthly, we study conceptual metaphors of five typical abstract nouns in each language. abstract nouns. In order to prove their semantic features clearly, we find out examples which are considered as reliable and convincing. Lastly, we find out the similarities and the differences of the four areas above. Besides, we find out other metaphors of these abstract nouns through other kinds of metaphor. 3.3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4. We focus on analyzing the ontological metaphors of these In order to meet the requirements of the objectives mentioned abstract nouns on the theory of conceptual metaphor. in chapter one, the study will be carried out by using descriptive, 5. We compare and contrast the formation, classification, and analysis, comparative and contrastive methods. However, I can’t ontological metaphors, and conceptual metaphors of these abstract avoid encountering some difficulties when applying methods to our nouns. study because of its potential disadvantages. First of all, we are 6. We review all we’ve studied and draw logical conclusions. completely restricted in a scope of our study because we are required 7. From the results found we suggest some implications. to depend on the data collected. Secondly, it takes us a lot of time to 8. Following the conclusion is the limitations of the study. carry out the research with several stages such as collecting, sorting, 9. Finally, we close the study with references. and analyzing data etc. Besides, there’s little guidance from 3.5. DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS experienced researchers on how to analyze some sources of data. In 3.5.1. Data collection addition, the data sources of cognitive theories haven’t been widely The study is carried out over 1000 examples collected from by Vietnamese linguists up to now. 3.4. RESEARCH PROCEDURES The process of our research follows the steps: different data sources. 3.5.2. Data analysis From this source of samples, we study the information, the classification of them. Then to study the ontological metaphors. 9 10 However, if we only use ontological metaphor, we can’t understand from other word classes or to the resulting abstract noun itself. abstract nouns fully. So, in this part, we would like to study Nominalised abstract nouns are typically derived from verbs, conceptual metaphors of chosen abstract nouns. However, each adjectives or nouns. abstract noun has a number of metaphors. In the scope of this study, Nominalised abstract nouns are divided into two main kinds: for many reasons, we can’t find out the metaphors of all 30 abstract attribute nouns which express attributes or qualities and verbal nouns nouns above. Therefore, we only choose five abstract nouns and which express state, condition, or action. analyze them elaborately. However, Radden and Dirven [12, p.82:83] also present that From the discussion of findings, we point out the similarities not all abstract nouns are morphologically derived forms. Some and differences between the metaphors of chosen abstract nouns in abstract nouns were not derived from any other part of speech, but both languages. were framed directly for the expression of certain ideas or phenomena. Such are beauty, joy, hope, ease, energy; day, night, CHAPTER 4 summer, winter; shadow, lightning, thunder, etc. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1.2. Classification of abstract nouns 4.1. ENGLISH ABSTRACT NOUNS Radden and Dirven classify abstract nouns into types [6, p.84- 4.1.1. Formation of abstract nouns 86]. The abstract nouns “war”, “attack”, “protest”, “problem”, According to Radden and Dirven [12, p.81-83], abstract things “doubt”, and “desire” are generally used as count nouns. What these have their linguistic expressions as abstract nouns. A very large abstract count nouns have in common is that they describe episodic number of abstract things, if not most, are based on relational situations, i.e. situations which, due to their limited duration, are seen concepts viewed as thing-like. The conceptual shift from a relational as discrete episodes. Episodic situations are typically events that take concept to a thing is known as reification. It makes us see a relation as place or come up (attack, protest, objection), but also certain states having some kind of “ontological” existence. This type of that can suddenly arise are seen as episodic (disease, idea, doubt). metaphorical shift has therefore been named ontological metaphor. In contrast, the abstract nouns heterogeneous “peace”, Since relations are essential to conceptual cores and situations, “knowledge”, “happiness”, “information”, “help”, “advice” ontological metaphors allow us to understand events and states in mostly used as mass nouns. They describe steady situations, i.e. terms of things. situations which are seen as lasting indefinitely or holding in general. The conceptual shift from relation to thing, or reification, has its linguistic counterpart in what is called nominalisation. Nominalisation refers either to the process of deriving abstract nouns are Steady situations are typically states (peace, knowledge, happiness), but also certain events are seen as steady (information, help, advice) 11 12 4.1.3. Ontological metaphors of abstract nouns in English To understand abstract nouns, along with Radden and Dirven , The thesis shows the tables which present the ontological other cognitive linguistists such as Lakoff, Johnson and Kövecses metaphors as well as their examples of 30 abstract nouns in English. Ten abstract nouns denoting psychological and mental states use ontological metaphors- one of the four groundings of metaphor and events are “anger”, “fear”, “surprise”, “happiness”, “sadness”, in the Cognitive Linguistic View. Lakoff and Johnson [4, p. 31] “shame”, “pride”, “desire”, “honesty”, and “courage”. affirmed that an ontological metaphor is a metaphor in which an abstraction, such as an activity, emotion, or idea, is represented as something concrete, such as an object, substance, container, or person. Kövecses [14, p.83] stated that ontological metaphors are Ten abstract nouns denoting social groups and processes are “society”, “nation”, “war”, “peace”, “economy”, “friendship”, “marriage”, “love”, “idea”, and “information”. Ten abstract nouns denoting personal experiences and event extremely basic ones, in that they give object, substance, or container “shape”, or status, to entities and events that are not are physical objects, substances, or containers. If two concepts (one “knowledge”, “wisdom”, “health”, and “experience”. abstract, the other concrete) share this basic shape or status, this can induce the perception of certain structural similarities between the two. Therefore, the author of this study would like to inherit this method to understand abstract nouns. “time”, “life”, “success”, “religion”, “help”, In summary, most abstract nouns in English “advice”, can be explained fully through the ontological metaphors. From the tables, we see that ontological metaphors give a new ontological status to general categories of abstract target concepts and to bring about new abstract entities. What this means is that we conceive of our We find that Kövecses [8, p.27] classified common target experiences in terms of objects, substances, and containers, in domains can be into psychological and mental states and events general, without specifying exactly what kind of object, substance, (emotion, desire, morality, thought), social groups and processes or container is meant. We can also conceive of personification as (society, economy, human relationships, communication), and a form of ontological metaphor. personal experiences and event (time, life, death, religion). From that, qualities are given to nonhuman entities. Personification makes we have the following tables which list abstract nouns belong to the use of one of the best source domains we have—ourselves. In three groups above. However, the classification is relative, because personifying nonhumans as humans, we can begin to understand some abstract nouns belong to this group maybe also belong to other them a little better. Since our knowledge about objects, substances, groups. Because there are so many abstract nouns, we don’t have and containers is rather limited at this general level, we cannot use ambition to list all here. We only choose 10 abstract nouns for each these highly general categories to understand much about target group and find out their ontological metaphors. In personification, human 13 14 domains. This is the job of structural metaphors, which is beyond become nouns, they need classifiers, most of which are niềm, nỗi, sự, this part. etc.... . This means that “ñiều lo sợ”, “sự tin tưởng” etc…are 4.1.4. Conceptual metaphors of Abstract nouns in English confirmed words and named compound nouns. Many abstract nouns As we know in the previous part, if we only use ontological in Vietnamese are compound nouns due to the disyllabic metaphor, we can’t understand abstract nouns fully. Since our characteristics of Vietnamese. knowledge about object, substance, container or personification is Nominalizations are formed from common nouns: rather limited at the general level, we cannot use these 1. Classifier + Noun- Loại Từ + Danh Từ highly general categories to understand much about target domains. This is the job of structural metaphors, which provide an elaborate structure a. Cuộc + noun: “cuộc ñời” (life span), “cuộc tình” (an amour) for abstract nouns. So, in this part, we would like to list other b. Nỗi + noun: “nỗi lòng” (sentiment), “nỗi sợ hãi” (terror) metaphors of chosen abstract nouns. However, each abstract noun c. Sự + noun: “sự kiện” (event), “sự nghiệp” (career), “sự thể” has a number of metaphors. In the scope of this study, for many (circumstances), “sự tích” (story, tale), “sự tình” (all the details) reasons, we can’t find out the metaphors of all 30 abstract nouns 2. Noun + Noun- Danh Từ + Danh Từ above. Therefore, we only choose five abstract nouns and analyze For example: “nghề nghiệp” (career), “ngôi vị” (position), “quê them elaborately. They are “anger”, “happiness”, “friendship”, “life”, hương” (homeland), “lý lẽ” (logic), “trụ cột” (important figure, and “time”. bread-winner) … 4.2. VIETNAMESE ABSTRACT NOUNS Nominalizations are formed from adjectives: 4.2.1. Formation of abstract nouns Classifier + Adjective- Loại Từ + Tính Từ Nguyen Tai Can [20, p.175] affirmed that most of the nouns a. Cái is also used with an adjective to make it a noun, similar denoting abstract concepts were borrowed from Chinese or to that style of English noun formation, disregarding the meaning: comprised of Sino-originals. According to him, except the “cái tốt” (the good), “cái xấu” (the ugly) cases which have not been confirmed whether word or phrase yet such as “ñiều lo sợ”, “sự tin tưởng” etc…, abstract nouns in Vietnamese have 5 patterns. vui” (pleasure party), … c. Kẻ or người for a significant constrast: “kẻ sang” (the noble), Nguyen Tai Can has not confirmed if “ñiều lo sợ” or “sự tin tưởng” etc… is a word or a phrase yet. However, according to Tran Ngoc Dung [27, p.168], the majority of abstract nouns b. Cuộc + adjective: “cuộc ñỏ ñen” (bout of gambling), “cuộc in Vietnamese enjoy back formation from adjectives or from verbs. To “người hèn” (the inferior) d. Sự + adjective: “sự buồn phiền” (grief), “sự giàu sang” (wealth and nobleness) Nominalizations are formed from verbs: 15 16 1. Classifier + Verbs - Loại Từ + Động Từ The thesis shows the tables which represent 30 abstract nouns a. Nỗi + verb: “nỗi bàng hoàng” (horrification), “nỗi nhớ” (memory) … in Vietnamese which are equivalent to those in English and their ontological metaphors as well as their examples. b. Niềm+ verb: “niềm hy vọng” (hopefulness), “niềm thương yêu” (attachment),… 4.2.4. Conceptual metaphor of abstract nouns in Vietnamese However, ¾ in literature writers tend to reverse nỗi for niềm: “niềm ñau”. Similarly to the previous part, we choose five abstract nouns in Vietnamese and find out their conceptual metaphors. They are “ sự d. Mối + verb: “mối tương tư” (lovesickness), “mối quan hệ” (relationship)… tức giận”, “ hạnh phúc”, “ tình bạn”, “ cuộc ñời”, and “ thời gian”. 4.3. SIMILATIES AND DIFFERENCES e. Cơn + verb: “cơn bàng hoàng” (a squall of bewilderment), “cơn giận dữ” (a fit of temper),… English and Vietnamese are two genetically unrelated languages. English is an Indo-European language and Vietnamese 2. Verb + Verb- Động Từ + Động Từ belongs to the Viet-Muong sub-branch of the Mon-Khmer branch, E.g: quan (observe) + niệm (conceive) > “quan niệm” which is itself a part of the large Austro-Asiatic family of (opinion), suy (infer)+ nghĩ (think) > “suy nghĩ” (thinking) languages. Given this, one would expect that most of the figurative 4.2.2. Classification of abstract nouns language that applies to the abstract nouns in English does not apply According to Hoang Van Thung [16, p.86], most of abstract to the same abstract nouns in Vietnamese. On the other hand, nouns in Vietnamese such as “tình cảm”, “ý”, “ý nghĩ”, “quyền lợi”, however, it is obvious that the two languages have been in (direct or “ñiều kiện”… can be absolutely countable because they can combine indirect) contact with each other to some extent. Given this, one with numerals directly. would expect some degree of similarity between the two, when Moreover, Tran Ngoc Dung [27, p.168] also confirmed that figurative language is used in connection with the same abstract though abstract, abstract nouns are capable of being used as nouns. These are clearly hypotheses that simplify, yet they can serve countable, which means they can go with quantifiers. as a useful way to begin to determine the relative differences and In short, most of abstract nouns in Vietnamese can be absolutely countable because they can combine with numerals directly. 4.2.3. Vietnamese Ontological metaphors of abstract nouns in similarities between two languages in the domain of abstract nouns. 4.3.1. Similarities between abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese 1. English abstract nouns are typically derived from verbs, adjectives or nouns: marriage derives from the verb marry or be married, happiness from the adjective happy, and friendship from the 17 18 noun friend. However, Radden and Dirven [6, p.82:83] also present We can conceive of personification as a form of ontological that not all abstract nouns are morphologically derived forms. For metaphor. In personification, human qualities example: beauty. nonhuman entities. Personification makes use of one of the best The majority of abstract nouns in Vietnamese also enjoy back formation from adjectives, verbs, or nouns. To become nouns, they are given to source domains we have ourselves. In personifying, nonhumans as humans, we can begin to understand them a little better. need classifiers, most of which are niềm, nỗi, sự, tia, trí, .... There are 3. Comparing the tables, we see that most of the abstract nouns also abstract nouns which don’t need classifiers. For example: hạnh in table 4.1 and 4.9 can be explained fully by four kinds of phúc. ontological metaphors. There are two abstract nouns in each table 2. Most of abstract nouns in English can be explained fully don’t have the container metaphor and the personification. through the ontological metaphors. From the tables, we see that Surprisingly, both the abstract noun “courage” and its equivalent “sự ontological metaphors give a new ontological status to general can ñảm” can’t be explained by the container metaphor. categories of abstract target concepts and to bring about new abstract entities. What this means is that we conceive of our experiences in terms of objects, substances, and containers, in general, without specifying exactly what kind of object, substance, or container is meant. Since our knowledge about objects, substances, and containers is rather limited at this general level, we cannot use these highly general categories to understand much about target domains. Understanding our experiences in terms of objects and substances allows us to pick out parts of our experience and treat them as discrete entities or substances of a uniform kind. Once we can identify our experiences as entities or substances, we can refer to them, categorize them, group them, and quantify them, and, by this means, reason about them. Our experiences with physical objects provide the basis for an extraordinarily wide variety of ontological metaphors, that is, ways of view events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Table 4.17: Comparison of selected English and Vietnamese abstract nouns denoting psychologicaland mental states and events Num Words Entity Substance Container Person 1 Anger + + + + Sự tức giận + + + + Fear + + + + Nỗỗi sợ hãi + + + + Surprise + + + + Sự ngạc nhiên + + + + Happiness + + + + Hạnh phúc + + + + Sadness + + + + Nỗỗi buỗồn + + + + Shame + + + + 2 3 4 5 6 19 20 Sự xấấu hổ 7 8 9 10 Pride + + + + + + + + Desire + + + + + + + + Honesty + + + + + + - + Courage + + - + Sự can ñảm 10 + Sự trung thực 9 + Sự khát khao 8 + Niềồm tự hào 7 + + + - + Marriage + - + + Hôn nhân + - + + Love + + + + Tình yêu + + + + Idea + + - + Ý tưởng + + + + Information + + - + Tin tức + + - - Due to their meaning, theEntity nouns in the table 4.2 and Person abstract Substance Container Num Words 4.10 lack of more mappings. Following -our findings,+some are not Society + + 1 + + Xã Some are not containers. Others are not persons. + substances.hội Nation + + + Table 4.18: Comparison of selected English and Vietnamese 2 + + + Dân tộc abstract nouns denoting + social groups and processes War + + + 3 + + + Chiềấn tranh 4 5 6 Peace + + + - Hòa bình - + + - Economy + - + - Nềồn kinh tềấ + - + - Friendship + - + + + + + 4.11. 1 Words Entity Substance Container Person The table below shows the comparison of the+table 4.3 and Time + + + Thời gian + + + Life + + + Table 4.19: Comparison of selected English and Vietnamese 2 + + Cuộc ñời abstract nouns denoting personal experiences and events Success + + + 3 + + + Sự thành công + + + + 5 6 7 Religion + + + + Tôn giáo + + + + Help + + - - Sự giúp ñỡ + + + + Advice + + - + Lời khuyên 4 + Tình bạn Num + + - + Knowledge + + + + 21 22 Kiềấn thức - Wisdom + + + + + + + - Health - + + - + + - - Experience + + - + Kinh nghiệm 10 - Sức khỏe 9 + Sự hiểu biềất 8 + + + + + Many of these abstract nouns in the table 4.3 and 4.11 can also be explained fully by the four kinds of the ontological metaphors except for “health” and “tôn giáo”. The container metaphor is absent frequently in both tables. Besides, some are not personified. 4. The abstract nouns “anger”, “friendship”, “life” and their equivalents in the tables 4.4 and 4.12, 4.6 and 4.14, 4.7 and 4.15 have common metaphors. 4.3.2. Differences between abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese Beside the similarities noted above, there are some salient differences between abstract nouns in English and Vietnamese. The most striking points we can see are that: 1. Abstract nouns fall into count nouns and mass nouns. Their distinction is, however, less clear-cut than concrete nouns. As a rule, episodic situations, i.e. situations that are thought of as holding for a limited time, are converted into objects and hence coded as abstract count nouns, such as “attack”, while steady situations. i.e. situations that are thought of as lasting indefinitely, are converted into substances and hence coded as abstract mass nouns, such as knowledge. Whereas most of abstract nouns in Vietnamese such as “tình cảm”, “ý”, “ý nghĩ”, “quyền lợi”, “ñiều kiện”… can be absolutely countable because they can combine with numerals directly. 2. Due to the fact that Vietnam was dominated by the Han for nearly one thousand two hundred years (207BC–939AD), the Vietnamese language borrowed a large number of words from Chinese. For this reason, many scholars estimate that 70 per cent of the Vietnamese vocabulary is comprised of Sino-originals. According to Nguyen Tai Can, most of nouns expressing abstract ideas in Vietnamese are borrowed from Hán. This kind of abstract noun is not usually accompanied by a classifier, or sometimes is accompanied by the classifier “cái”. For example, “nguyên tắc”, “chính sách”, “phương châm”, “tiêu chuẩn”, “mục ñích”, “tôn chỉ”, “chương trình”, “chủ trương”, “bổn phận”, “nguyên nhân”, “kết quả”, “ñiều kiện”, “bổn phận”,…Whereas a significant number of English words are constructed based on roots from Latin. 3. Due to the different cultures of English and Vietnamese people, some metaphors of chosen abstract concepts are natural in English, but they seem to be strange in Vietnamese. The above differences in metaphorical expressions come from different value concepts of English and Vietnamese people. Because “the language itself is a kind of cultural force and cultural mode, people acquire this language from childhood, and the cultural symbols including all the cultural concepts, values, norms and customs are molded into their own thought and behavior”. So, the values of different nations are inevitably reflected in their languages. Summary 23 24 In this chapter, we divide the target domains (abstract nouns) 1 Formation - Are derived from - Are derived from into three groups: psychological & mental states and events, social verbs, groups and progresses, personal experiences and events. In each or nouns group, we choose ten abstract nouns and study them under the light - of ontological metaphors (the entity metaphor, the from Hán from Latin container metaphor and the personification). It’s interesting that most of these borrowed - Are based on roots Are classified into Most count nouns and count nouns ontological metaphors. The analysis proved that there are “Metaphors mass nouns However, concepts (both target and source) have several 3 Classification ,or nouns nouns, in both languages, can be understood fully through we live by” which we use unknowingly. 2 Are adjectives verbs, adjectives 85 metaphors aspects to them, speakers need several source domains to Ontological explained So, we choose some abstract nouns and find out other metaphors of them. It’s surprising that the abstract nouns and their equivalents have 4 different cultures. In different environments, people experience world differently and therefore metaphorical concepts they use must be rather different. Table 4.20: Comparison of selected English and Vietnamese abstract nouns Num The area of comparison English Vietnamese by by ontological metaphors metaphors for the metaphor the metaphor TIME IS HAPPINESS IS A REMEDY BEING OFF THE GROUND abstract nouns between the two languages are also drawn out in this throughout be 85 % can be explained The same except The same except for Besides, some similarities and differences in understanding understanding are Conceptual and their equivalent “thời gian” and “hạnh phúc”.. world, it is impossible to have some kinds of world-wide them metaphors common metaphors, apart the abstract noun “time” and “happiness” chapter. Since metaphors emerge from our experience with material can ontological understand these different aspects of target concepts. If we only use ontological metaphor, we can’t understand abstract nouns fully. % of CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION 5.1. CONCLUSION The study aims to find out the formation, classification, ontological metaphors, and conceptual metaphors of abstract nouns in English and in Vietnamese In the end of the study, we have the following conclusions: 1. The researches of Alexander, Gordon, Jacobs, etc. in English and those of Diệp Quang Ban, Nguyễn Tài Cẩn, Trần Ngọc Dụng and Lê Biên in Vietnamese help to give an overview of nouns, 25 26 especially abstract nouns in the both languages. In cognitive 5. However, concepts (both target and source) have several linguistics, the famous researchers such as George Lakoff, Mark aspects to them, speakers need several source domains to Johnson, deep understand these different aspects of target concepts. If we only understanding of metaphors and kinds of metaphors. Besides, use ontological metaphor, we can’t understand abstract nouns fully. Giang M.Tang provides a cross- linguistic comparison of Vietnamese So, we choose five abstract nouns in each language and find out other and English. metaphors of chosen abstract nouns. Some have common metaphors, Radden, Dirven, and Ko¨vecses give the 2. English abstract nouns are typically derived from verbs, adjectives or nouns: “marriage” derives from the verb marry or be married, “happiness” from the adjective happy, and “friendship” others have different metaphors. Since metaphors emerge from our experience with material world, it is impossible to have some kinds of world-wide from the noun friend. However, Radden and Dirven [6, p.82:83] also understanding present that not all abstract nouns are morphologically derived forms. environments, people experience world differently and therefore For example: “beauty”. metaphorical concepts they use must differ. The majority of abstract nouns in Vietnamese also enjoy back formation from adjectives, verbs, or nouns. To become nouns, they need classifiers, most of which are niềm, nỗi, sự, etc .... 3. Abstract nouns fall into count nouns and mass nouns. Their throughout different cultures. In different 5.2. MPLICATION Abstract nouns play an important role in communication. These nouns name things that can't be seen, heard, tasted, smelled or touched, but allow us to express information by defining them on distinction is, however, less clear-cut. As a rule, episodic situations, some levels. What this study would like to focus is that about abstract i.e. situations that are thought of as holding for a limited time, are things, there is no other way how to comprehend them then in terms converted into objects and hence coded as abstract count nouns, such of something that emerges from our experience with material world. as “attack”, while steady situations. i.e. situations that are thought of So, using conceptual metaphors is the best way to understand abstract as lasting indefinitely, are converted into substances and hence coded nouns. as abstract mass nouns, such as “knowledge”. Whereas most of abstract nouns in Vietnamese such as “tình cảm”, “ý”, “ý nghĩ”, “quyền lợi”, “ñiều kiện”… can be absolutely countable because they can combine with numerals directly. 4. Some similarities and differences in understanding abstract nouns through ontological metaphors between the two languages are also drawn out.
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