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Introduction
Viet Nam ‘s effort to restructure the economy really got underway with
the Sixth Party Congress held in December 1986. Our economic structure
mechanism was really changed from planned market oriented economy to
market oriented economy. Then Vietnam's membership in the ASEAN Free
Trade Area (AFTA) and entry into force of the US-Vietnam Bilateral Trade
Agreement in December 2001 have led to even more rapid changes in Vietnam's
trade and economic regime. Following over a decade long negotiation process,
Viet Nam became the official one of members of WTO in January 2007. The
economy have moved to implement the structural reforms needed to modernize
itself and to support more competitive, export-driven industries. This fast
economic development results that the main target of every Vietnamese
enterprises is how to complete with other domestic and foreign enterprises.
Getting to know of the importance of changing, during probation period at
Ha Trung Plastic Technology Joint Stock Company( Ha Trung JSC), I have
decided to choose the subject ‚Selling activities of Ha Trung Plastic
Technology JSC” for my graduation thesis.
In my view, this is interesting subject. Many researchers is trying to
research and set up detail marketing plans as well as selling plans for their own
product.
I would like to thank my supervisor Nguyen Luong Long MBA for his
coaching and comments during the carrying out of thesis. Without the intensive
assistance of my supervisor the results of this thesis would never have been
possible.
Further, I would like to thank all professors of Hanoi University of Business
and Technology and Managers of Ha Trung JSC for their support and kindness
toward me.
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Chapter 1. theoretical and practical background
I/ Theoretical background
1/ Selling:
Selling is a process by which one person guides other people's behavior
along a path in a desired direction, culminating in the purchase of a product or
service.Good selling is convincing someone of something they didn’t think they
needed, they buy it and love it and realize they did need it!! Life insurance, or
car breakdown and recovery cover, or double glazing, or a mobile phone
agreement. The most of the skills are out there in the public domain, more so
than ever before. It’s like how we learn to use the Internet: somehow, we soak up
the universal knowledge.
Many people know what it takes to be good at selling, it’s just a matter of
applying it. Sellers know there’s enough books and stuff on the Internet, and if
sellers have got the driver and motivation to read them, then they are likely to
have the same drive that makes them good and successful at selling.
The selling concept is practiced most aggressively with unsought goods goods that buyers normally do not think of buying, such as insurance and funeral
plots. The selling concept is also practiced in the nonprofit area by fund-raisers,
college admissions offices and political parties. Most firms practice the selling
concept when they have overcapacity. Their aim is to sell what they make rather
than make what the market wants. In modern industrial economies, productive
capacity has been built up to a point where most markets are buyer markets( the
buyers are dominant) and sellers have to scramble for customers. Prospects are
bombarded
with sales messages. As a results, the public often identifies
marketing with hard selling and advertising.
However, marketing based in hard selling carries high risks. If assumes that
customers who are coaxed into buying a product will like it: and if they don’t,
that they won’t bad-mouth or complain to customer organizations and will forget
their disappointment and buy it again. These are indefensible assumptions. One
study showed that dissatisfied customers may bad-mouth the product to 10 or
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more acquaintances: today bad news travel even faster and father with the
Internet.
2. Types of Selling
- Service-Oriented Selling
The focus is on the product -- communication information about products,
merchandise or services. The sole function of the salesperson is to process sales
transactions. Consumers make their own decisions about how the product
satisfies their needs.
Service sales are the easiest to make.
- Developmental Selling
+ The focus is on the customer. The product is positioned by the
salespeople in relation to the needs of prospects.
+ Involves much more creativity than service selling.
+ Requires acquiring knowledge about the market, economy, client..
2/ Selling process
Most of sale professionals agree on the major steps ( see chart 1) involved
in any effective sale process as follows:
- Prospecting and qualifying: The first step in selling is identifying and
qualifying prospects. The purpose of this step is to find potential buyer who have
a need for your product, the ability to afford it, the authority to make the buying
decision. For instance, sales representatives at Gulfs tram Aerospace, which sells
corporate jets, focus their selling effort at those finite number of company that
can afford to buy jets and at the top executive who will benefit most and who
have authority to approve the purchase.
- Preapproach: the successful salesperson prepares before actually making
the first cal, learning as much as possible about the prospect (whenever a person
or company) and the prospect’s want and needs. Then the salesperson should
plan a strategy – including determining the best initial contact approach (phone,
visit, letter, email) and selecting the right time to make that initial contact.
- Approach: in the initial contact, the salesperson will want to make a good
first impression and begin building a rapport with the customer. Little things –
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dress attire, use of language, mannerisms –may seem superficial but the
contribute to that first impression. In some businesses, it can take years to make
an eventual sale. For instance, a sales rep at Herman Miller, the furniture
manufacturer, spent ten years calling on the Pentagon before he landed a major
contact. The approach step in the sales process lays the foundation for building
and continuing a relationship.
- Presentation and demonstration: the presentation and demonstration must
be tailored to the customer’s needs. The salesperson needs to effectively grab the
customer’s interest and arouse desire. A good sales presentation will describe the
product’s futures, advantage, benefits and value- all in terms of the customer’s
point of view. Company like Xerox, Cisco systems and Guffstream Aerospace
invest heavily in sales training to ensure that their salespeople know their
products inside and out.
- Overcoming objections: customer almost always have questions and
doubts .It’s the salesperson’s responsibility to overcome them. Objections
shouldn’t be seen as negative or threatening. They’re natural part of the sales
process. But a trained and knowledgeable salesperson- one who knows both the
product being sold and potential customer’s needs- is equipped to successfully
overcome objections.
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Chart 1. The seven steps in effective selling;
PrpProspecting and
qualifying
Preapproach
Approach
Presentation
Demonstrat
ion
Overcoming
objections
Closing
Follow up
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- Closing : the successful sales has the confidence and timing to know
when to ‚ask for the sale‛. Sales training programs typically include a number of
techniques that can be effective closer .
- Follow-up: Selling should be viewed as part of creating a relationship. As
such, the sale isn’t over when the customer says yes and an order is written. The
end goal is a satisfied customers. To ensure that goal is reached, the effective
salesperson makes a follow- up call to certify that the order was received in the
condition expected, to make sure the customer is happy with the product, and to
ask what additional service if any the sales representative can provide.
3. Practical background of VietNam Plastic Industry
The plastic industry commenced almost half a century ago in Vietnam;
however, the production remained limited and diminutive until recent years.
Thus, the Vietnamese plastic industry is considered still in its infancy compared
to that of other countries in the region like Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and
China. By way of comparison, Vietnam’s production output of plastics per
capita was 25 kg of plastic per person in 2005, and is expected to rise to 40 kg
per capita by 2010. Although this is a rapid increase, plastic output per capita
of Malaysia in 1999 was 49kg, five times higher than Vietnam’s figure in the
same year (9.4kg). Singapore’s output per capita for the same year was 10 times
higher and Thailand’s was three times greater and even Indonesia was two times
greater for the same period.
Currently, there are about 2700 plastic corporations in Vietnam, 80% of
which are of small or medium size and privately owned. Only 6% are stateowned, but they represent about 20% of the total capital invested in the industry.
State-owned companies tend to be larger and to employee more workers and
have a greater investment total than their small or medium sized private
competitors. The rest are foreign invested enterprises, with about 35% in terms
of overall capital investment.
Despite its somewhat smaller size than competitor markets in China,
Thailand and Malaysia, plastics is a growth industry in Vietnam with an annual
growth rate of around 30 percent per year in recent years. This growth has made
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plastics a major export earner for the country. In 2005, Plastics was third after
coal and rice as the fastest growing sector despite the rapid rise of petroleum and
other inputs that caused major jumps in plastic resins prices. This growth has
been noted particularly by regional competitors such as Malaysia which has
responded by investing to try to develop new markets. Examples of this are Poly
Tower Ventures Bhd, and Tong Guan Industries Berhad are both opening
factories in Vietnam shortly , in order to gain both local market share and to be
able to take more orders from EU and the U.S..
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Chart 2
Plastics are one of the most important and versatile materials in the global
economy. Plastics are durable, strong, lightweight, and resistant to chemicals;
they can be transparent, translucent, or opaque; soft, flexible, or hard; insulators
or conductors of heat and electricity. They can be fabricated into almost any
shape and size. And they are recyclable using multiple resource recovery
options. From packaging to aerospace applications, plastics provide designers,
engineers, manufacturers, and consumers with products that contribute to
economic growth, sustainability of the environment, and a higher standard of
living worldwide. Inherently light weight, plastics are an efficient use of natural
resources. Plastic products are used as the basis for manufactured articles (such
as toys) and as components of manufactured products (such as automobiles)
making plastics an important and strategic factor in economies in which
manufacturing plays a significant role. As developing countries enter into the
manufacturing stage of economic development, plastics will continue to grow in
importance. There is already international trade in end-of-life products for the
purpose of reclaiming or recycling the plastic components. Plastics products
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figure in all nine ISO technical sectors: Agriculture and food technology;
Construction; Electronics, information technology and telecommunications;
Engineering Technology; Generalities, infrastructure and sciences; Health,
safety and environment; Materials technologies; Special technologies; Transport
and distribution of goods.
The national plastic industry produces virtually all of what the domestic
market consumes and production is currently more oriented toward domestic
items and packaging vis-à -vis export. Vietnam’s internal market is changing
and increasingly there is more demand for hi-tech plastics products. Prior to
2004, all Vietnamese plastic products were manufactured with genuine plastic
resins. Since then, to comply with the growing demand, the government has
allowed the imports of cheaper plastic scrap: Vietnam is Asia’s second largest
importer of plastic materials. Nonetheless, such fact is raising an issue as raw
plastic material prices have soared recently. The plastics industry in Vietnam
tends to be highly labor intensive. A survey in 2004 revealed that 70% of the
labor force in the Vietnamese plastic industry is unskilled, seven times higher
than the combined average of other sectors. Most plastics companies employ
between 10 and 50 people. The average monthly salary for a plastics industry
employee is just under 2 million VND, with a large degree of variation
depending on whether the company is foreign or locally owned and dependent
on location of the factory facility.
The development strategy of Vietnam's plastics industry to 2010 has stated
that the industry will need investment of US$ 3 billion to achieve industry goals.
The plan outlines an integrated plastics industry where raw materials would be
almost exclusively supplied by in-country resources and product is both used for
domestic selling and export. By 2005, 30% of the industry's demand on materials
should be supplied domestically, lessening its heavy dependence on imports. The
industry will focus on replacing and upgrading machinery and equipment for raw
material production and hi-tech products such as construction materials, parts for
the auto, motorcycle, and refrigeration equipment industries...
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The Vietnamese plastics industry is highly dependent on imports. Currently
the Vietnamese plastic industry must import about 1.5 - 2 million tons of raw
materials annually, plus hundreds of auxiliary chemicals used in the plastics
industry. Domestic raw materials can meet only 30 percent of the country’s
demand. In 2004 Vietnam was Asia’s second largest importer of plastics
materials. The Vietnamese government is attempting to promote import
substitution by helping to finance several domestic production facilities but the
government forecasts that Vietnam will still have to import roughly half of the
resins it needs after these production facilities are completed in 2010.
Vietnam is dependent upon polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP),
polyvinyl chloride E (PVCE) and polyvinyl styrene (PS) imported from abroad.
Vietnam is less dependent upon imports of B oriented polypropylene (BOPP),
polyvinyl chloride S (PVCS) and dioctyl phthalate (DOP) resins as growing
amounts of this are being produced domestically - supply is still inadequate to
meet demand.
The major plastic exporters to Vietnam are regional countries such as
China, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan. In 2005, Vietnam imported 1,147 MT of
both raw materials and finished products. The plastic import value was
$1,426mil, equal to four times of export value of $350 in 2005. In 2004,
Vietnam exported only 10 percent of total output, i.e. 90 percent for domestic
demand (VPA).
Vietnamese plastics products have been shipped to many countries, such as
Cambodia, Laos, India, Sri Lanka, Japan, China, the EU, Taiwan and the US.
Investment opportunities exist in the packaging field, plastics machinery
production, plastics resin production and waste plastics reprocessing subsectors.
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Chapter2. the situation and selling of hatrung
plastic technology joint stock company
I. The outlines of HaTrung JSC
1. The history of Ha Trung JSC
HaTrung company is based in 551 Nguyen Van Cu, Long Bien district, Ha
Noi, is a joint stock company which started on 1/6/1994 with business
registration number 0103004549.
Company provides a broad range of plastic bags, packaging supplies and
poly tubing, food services and industrial packaging markets, nylons and super
market bags, goods relate plastic...Plastic goods comes up to the standard ISO
4427 : 1996, TCVN 7305 : 2003 , BS 3505:1968, AS/NZS 1477:1996,..
Being one of a few known plastics company in Vietnam having in-line a
mold design and manufacture site and workshops with blow and injection
molding technology. Ha Trung is always committed to right timing and good
control of quality products. Applying the quality control system ISO 9001 helps
Ha Trung to make good control of the process and ensure customers’
satisfaction.
Ha Trung’s factory is equipped with modern machines and tools, and they
are always upgraded annually by famous providers as K Krauss-Maffei,
Cincinnati, Corma,... In parallel, Ha Trung’s engineers and staffs are well and
professionally trained. With these advantages, products of Ha Trung and
precision molds always are the first choice of customers in the Vietnamese
market.
2. Management and organization structure
Ha Trung company’s organization has line-functional structure. With this
structure, company has a clear line or chain of command running down from
highest passions to lowest positions. All people in the organization know what
decisions they are able to make, who their superior( or boss) is ( to whom they
report), and who their immediate subordinates are( to whom they can give
instructions).
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Chart3: The company organizational structure
Board of director
Marketing department
Accounting depart
Production depart
Agency
depart
management
a.Board of director: (CEO and Deputy Directorare responsible for setting
sales and profit goals for every year that are elaborated into specific goals for
each lower level .
- The chief executive officer and his Deputy is the most important role in
the management of an organization.
+ They are leaders of company, always give advises the board
+ Advocates / promotes organization and stakeholder change related to
organization mission
+ Supports motivation of employees in organization products/ programs
and operations
- They have a visionary and give information bearer:
+ Ensures staff and Board have sufficient and up-to-date information
+ Looks to the future for change opportunities
+ Interfaces between Board and employees
+ Interfaces between organization and community
- And they are decision marker:
+
Formulates
policies
and
planning
recommendations
to
the
Board
+ Decides or guides courses of action in operations by staff
- They are managers in the company:
+ Oversees operations of organization
+ Implements plans
+ Manages human resources of organization
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+ Manages financial and physical resource
- They are a board developer:
+ Assists in the selection and evaluation of board members
+ Makes recommendations, supports Board during orientation and selfevaluation
+ Supports Board's evaluation of Chief Executive
b. The Marketing Department
+ The marketing organization consists of functional specialists: geographic
area, product or customer markets ( such as the sales manager and marketing
research manager) who report to a marketing vice president, who coordinate
their activities. They research market and give tactics, strategies to compete.
+ Managers finds market, makes relationship with customers, solving and
customer care, increasingly please regional and local sale group, understand and
deal with individual customers rather with the mass market or even market
segments.
+ Examining whether the planned results are being achieve. Marketers
study strategies, strength and weak of product to compete with competitor’s .
+ Marketers today are showing a growing interest in developing better
marketing metrics for measuring marketing performance.
c. Production department
Production is the functional area responsible for turning inputs into finished
outputs through a series of production processes. The Production Manager is
responsible for making sure that raw materials are provided and made into
finished goods effectively. He or she must make sure that work is carried out
smoothly, and must supervise procedures for making work more efficient and
more enjoyable. In a manufacturing company the production function may be
split into five sub-functions:
1. The production and planning section will set standards and targets for
each section of the production process. The quantity and quality of products
coming off a production line will be closely monitored. In businesses focusing
on lean production, quality will be monitored by all employees at every stage of
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production, rather than at the end as is the case for businesses using a quality
control approach.
2. The purchasing section will be responsible for providing the
materials, components and equipment required to keep the production process
running smoothly. A vital aspect of this role is ensuring stocks arrive on time
and to the right quality.
3. The stores section will be responsible for stocking all the necessary
tools, spares, raw materials and equipment required to service the manufacturing
process. Where sourcing is unreliable, buffer stocks will need to be kept and the
use of computerized stock control systems helps keep stocks at a minimal but
necessary
level
for
production
to
continue
unhindered.
4. The design and technical support section will be responsible for researching
new products or modifications to existing ones, estimating costs for producing in
different quantities and by using different methods. It will also be responsible for
the design and testing of new product processes and product types, together with
the development of prototypes through to the final product. The technical support
department may also be responsible for work study and suggestions as to how
working
practices
can
be
improved.
5. The works section will be concerned with the manufacture of products. This
will include the maintenance of the production line and other necessary repairs.
The works department may also have responsibility for quality control and
inspection.
Marketing is concerned with knowing and understanding the requirements
of customers, so that Production can provide the market led products that are
required. This also requires excellent communication systems to be in place.
d. The Accounting department
- Accounting is a process of measuring, recording, classifying, and
summarizing financial data that will be useful for CEO decides in making
economic plans.
- The Accounting Department is in charge of the finance management for
company, notice to board of management on assets and liabilities, debts, submit
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suggestion to make prices for product... owners of the business, creditors that
have loaned money to the entity, labor unions, and taxing authorities.
e. Agencies Management Department
- Managing wholesale and retail sale agencies, showrooms.
_ Collecting market information directly, opinion of customers to help
company making competition strategies.
All departments are connected each other and created a union organization
which provides information which helps Management Board control annual plan
of company and development strategies,
II. Business activities of Hatrung JSC
1.Business activities
a/ Materials:
Company searches material resources itself, Hatrung usually imports
material for production of customer goods from domestic companies such as
HaNoi Plastic Company, Tien Phong Plastic Company, Binh Minh Company....
and Company imports PVC, PP, Dor for production of nylon bags, kinds of film,
food services and industrial packaging material from foreign companies of
Japan, Thailand, China, Taiwan ,... and plastic suppliers in Hung yen, Phu Ly,
Hai Duong....
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b/ Sales revenue and profit
chart 03: result of business activities
Disparity 2005/2004
Norms
2004
2005
Absolutely
(+) (-) %
figure
1.
turnover
3.849.188,497
5.581.834.797
+ 1.732.646.300 + 45,01
2.
expensive
2.781.713.202
4.046.545.004
+ 1.264.831.802 + 45,41
3.
Total profit
1,245.672.604
1.782.792.954
+ 537.120.350
+ 43,12
4.
Tax
341,592.094
491.292.733
+ 149.700.639
+ 43,82
5.
average income per person
679.274
911.919
+ 232.645
+ 34,25
6.
invested capital
3.585.530.340
3.650.803.711
+ 170.945.371
+ 4,91
7.
Fixed capital
1,945.434.375
1.862.073.511
- 83.360.864
- 4,28
8.
floating capital
1,640.095.965
1.788.730.200
+ 254.306.235
+ 16,57
9.
original price of fixed assets
2.324.581.809
2.353.581.809
+ 29.000.000
+ 1,24
After many years in business activity, Ha Trung has developed very fast.
Development of company through follow figures :
As you can see, goods sales are rising rapidly. Comparing 2005 to 2006,
we can see good image of Ha Trung company
*turnover 2006 / 2005 increase 45,01% this is largely due to improved
tactics and methods in business activities which make employees concentrated
on producing
*total profit has increased for 43,12%. It showed that selling activity is
pretty good and favors. This is a result of trying employees’ best. It proved that
the capital resource of company is always stable and can ensure of business
activity next year.
Beside of production, HaTrung takes apart on other activities such as:
confinement for other companies, importing for them and receiving commission.
Commission depends on value of contract (0,9% for contract under 100.000
USD). Although this activity doesn’t bring a big profit but it’s pretty stable to
increase yearly revenue and brings good relationship with other companies
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c/ Labor force:
Labor force has an importance role in the company. They are the factor
which can ensure quality, quantities of product for company. They are a main
force during selling process.
Chart 4: labour force
Norms
I
Total of employee
1.
2.
II.
2004
2005
Disparity
person
520
570
50
person
490
535
45
30
35
5
Undergraduated
16
16
-
-
High-school
305
316
11
-
Tech- worker
18
23
5
-
Other
171
215
44
-
Full-time
-
Part-time
Skilled
-
Unit
person
Salary
1. Total of salary
VN§
2. Avarage
VN§
Income/person
475.785.33 571.773.27 95.987.942
7
9
679.274
911.919
232.645
d/ Customer market:
Ha Trung’s main consumption market is HaNoi, and subordinate markets
are in Vinh Phuc, Phu Ly,.... Hanoi is a large and attractive market for business
investors. Similar products with good quality, attractive model, special smuggle
goods with cheap prices from China appear everywhere. Customers have many
chances for their selection so their needs is difficult to please. Because of this
reason, Ha Trung plastic makes competition strategies, tactics to open selling
channel and compete with other enterprise. Ha Trung builds long- term,
profitable customer relationships by focusing on its most profitable customers,
products, and channels. Managers are also shifting from making a profit on each
sale to making profits by managing customer lifetime value. Customers see a
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provider with a full product suite with long-term staying power and commitment
to the marketplace even in difficult consumer environments.
e/ Types of selling
To excuse strategies plan, selling plan was done as following:
+ Periodic purchase contract/wholesaling
This way is applied with state and private enterprise what has large needs,
regular visitors. They involved in selling goods or services to those who buy for
resale or business use. Wholesaling also called distributor differ from retailers in
a numbers of ways. Beside, company is applied with wholesales organization
what has capacity on financial and has high prestige with company. On 2007,
company has made 28 contracts which value appreciated 50billion. One of them
is regular customer and is big partner of company. Company will have a price
reduction to those buyers who buy large volume‛ $10 per unit for less than 100
units;$9 per unit for 100 or more units‛ Quantity discount must be offer equally
to all customers and must not exceed the cost saving to the seller associated with
selling large quantities. They can be offered on a noncumulative basic( on each
order placed) or a cumulative basic ( on the number of units ordered over a
given period)
+ Retail sales: this is direct sales channel. It consist of selling directly or
intermediary to the final customer through stores which are placed at retail stores
system of company. Stores provide many kinds of products not only product of
Hatrung company but also other one of
companies which is arranged
attractively. All customers are introduced by sellers. This way will help
monetary turnover faster and sellers can know needs and interested of customers
faster. As the result, company can control product better.
+ Sales through agencies: it’s short channel. Company-agency-customer.
Agencies
consist of individuals who has strong financial, want to become
providers for company at other areas. Agencies will receive bonus about 2% or
4% from price table of each product which they brought
f. Selling channel management:
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With the produce new growth of customer segments and channel
possibilities,
more
companies
have
adopted
multichannel
marketing.
Multichannel marketing will help company gain three benefits. The first is
increased market coverage-companies often add a channel to reach a customer
segment that its current channel cannot reach. The second is lower channel costcompanies may add a new channel to lower the cost of selling to an existing
customer group( selling by phone rather personally visiting small customer). The
third is more customized selling- companies may add a channel whose selling
feature fit customer requirements better( adding a technical sales force to sell
more complex equipment).
g. Selling policy
+ Adapting the price: Hatrung has strategies: retail and wholesales price,
geographical pricing, price discounts and allowances, promotional pricing,
discriminatory pricing, and product mix pricing...
+ Payment: Company gives many ways of paying: cash, irrevocable letter
of credit, ...Customers (wholesales, agencies) can
cash and carry, progress
payment, lump-sum payment... Payment deadline depends on each kind of
customer. A cash discount is a price reduction to buyer who pay their bills
promptly. A typical examples ‚2/10, net 20‛ which means the payment is due
within 30 days and that the buyer can deduct 2% by paying the bill within 10
days. Such discount is customary in many industries.
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chart 5: discount policy
Discount (wholesales/agencies)
Small
quantity
1. payment in advance
2. payment on delivery
3. late payment
Big
quantity
1%
1,2%
1,3 %
1,5%
2,3%
2,5%
+ Transportation fee: Company can discount transportation fee to different
customers in different locations and countries. For example, should the company
charge distant customer more to cover higher shipping cost or set a lower price.
+ Guarantee: all of products are guaranteed to give 100% satisfaction in
everyway. Return anything purchased from them at anytime if they are mistaken
by company. They will replace it and refund customer’s purchase price or credit
your credit card.
It’s proved through the selling result table of company on 2006 and first
half of 2007.
2. Production Process and Facilities
a/ Production Process:
Ha Trung’s factory is equipped with modern machines and tools, and they
are always upgraded annually by famous providers as K Krauss- Maffei,
Cincinnati, Corma,...
There are 3 key stages: heating, shaping, cooling and 4 period in plastic
process such as processing thermoplastic, processing thermoses, secondary
processing, last is recycling. Processing selection depends on many factors
including quality and production rate and detail of the product, Size of final
product, dimensional accuracy and surface finish, nature of material. An
example, Nylon is formed by two methods. Dual numbers arise from the first; a
condensation reaction between diamines and dibasic acids produces a nylon salt.
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