Tài liệu Nghiên cứu sữa part 1

Dairy Science and Technology Handbook 1 Principles and Properties Y. K Hui EDITOR VCH Dairy Science and Technology Handbook 2 Product Manufacturing Y. H. Hui EDITOR VCH Dairy Science and Technology Handbook 3 Applications Science, Technology, and Engineering Y. K Hui EDITOR VCH Dr. Y. H. Hui 3006 4 4 S " Street Eureka, California 95501 U.S.A. A NOTC TO THE READER: This book has been electronically reproduced from digital information stored at John Wiley & Sons, Inc. We are pleased that the use of this new technology will enable us to keep works of enduring scholarly value in print as long as there is a reasonable demand for them. The content of this book is identical to previous printings. Copyright O 1993 by Wiley-VCH, Inc. Originally published as ISBN 1 -56081 -078-5 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 and 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012. (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, e-mail [email protected] for ordering, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY. Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dairy science and technology handbook / editor, Y.H. Hui. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56081-078-5 1. Dairy processing. 2. Dairy products. I. Hui, Y. H. (Yiu H.) SF250.5.D35 1992 637—dc20 92-30191 PREFACE Although there are many professional reference books on the science and technology of processing dairy products, this 3-volume set is unique in its coverage (topics selected, emphasis, and latest development) and its authors (experts with diversified background and experience). Volume I discusses four important properties and applications of milk and dairy ingredients: chemistry and physics, analyses, sensory evaluation, and protein. Each chapter is not a comprehensive treatment of the subject, since more than one reference book has been written on each of the four disciplines. Rather, each chapter discusses the basic information in reasonable details that are supplemented by new research data and advances. This assures that each chapter contributes new information not available in many reference books already published. Volume II discusses the manufacture technology for yogurt, ice cream, cheese, and dry and concentrated dairy products. The direction of each chapter is carefully designed to provide two types of information. Each chapter details the currently accepted procedures of manufacturing the product and then explores new advances in technology and their potential impact on the processing of such products in the future. The fifth chapter in this volume discusses microbiology and associated health hazards for dairy products. The goal of this chapter is obvious, since there are so much new information on this topic in the last few years. The authors have done an excellent job in reviewing available data on this highly visible field. Volume III is unique because it covers five topics not commonly found in professional reference books for dairy manufacture: quality assurance, biotechnology, computer application, equipment and supplies, and processing plant designs. The length of each chapter is limited by the size of the book. As a result, I assume full responsibility for any missing details since I assigned a fixed length to each chapter. The appendix to Volume I alphabetically lists products and services in the dairy industry. Under each product or service, the appendix describes the names of companies that provide those products and services. In Volume III, the appendix provides information for each company listed in Volume I. This includes contact data and the types of products and services for each company. The appendixes for Volumes I and III are not repeated in Volume II in order to assure a reasonable price for the books. As for the expertise of the authors, you are the best judge since most of them are known among scientists, technologists, and engineers in the dairy discipline. This three-volume set is a reference book and will benefit dairy professionals in government, industry, and academia. The information is useful to individuals engaged in research, manufacturing, and teaching. In general, the texts form an excellent background source for professionals who just enter the field. For expert dairy professionals, these books serve as a subject review as well as a summary of what is new. Any chapter in the three volumes can be used as a supplement material for a class teaching a specific topic in or an overview of the science and technology of processing diary products. Y.H. Hui October 1992 Contributors Genevieve L. Christen, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37901-1071, U.S.A. H. D. Goff, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NlG 2Wl, Canada A. R. Hill, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NlG 2Wl, Canada Lynn V. Ogden, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, U.S.A. Paul Paquin, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Laval, Quebec, Province of Quebec, GlK 7P4, Canada Olivier Robin, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Laval, Quebec, Province of Quebec, GlK 7P4, Canada Sylvie Turgeon, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Laval, Quebec, Province of Quebec, GlK 7P4, Canada Contributors Marijana Caric, Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, 2100 Novi Sad, Bulevar, Yugoslavia Ramesh C. Chandan, James Ford Bell Technical Center, General Mills, Inc., 9000 Plymouth Avenue North, Minneapolis, MN 55427, U.S.A. Maribeth A. Cousin, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 47906, U.S.A. Rafael Jimenez-Flores, Agricultural Bioprocessing Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801-4726, U.S.A. Norman J. Klipfel, Baskin-Robbins International Company, Glendale, CA, U.S.A. K. Rajinder Nath, Kraft General Foods, 801 Waukegan Road, Glenview, IL 60025, U.S.A. Khem Shahani, Department of Food Science and Technology, Food Industry Complex, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0919, U.S.A. Joseph Tobias, Agricultural Bioprocessing Laboratory University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801-4726, U.S.A. P.C. Vasavada, Department of Animal and Food Science, University of Wisconsin, River Falls, WI 54022 Contributors Jeffrey R. Broadbent, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-8100, U.S.A. Vance Caudill, Lockwood Greene Engineers, Inc., Spartanburg, SC 29304, U.S.A. Thomas Gilmore, Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, 6245 Executive Boulevard Drive, Rockville, MD 20852-3938, U.S.A. Jeffrey K. Kondo, Marschall Products, Rhone-Poulenc, Inc., 601 Science Drive, Madison, WI 53711, U.S.A. Robert L. Olsen, Department of Research and Development, Schreiber Foods, Inc., Green Bay, WI 54307-9010, U.S.A. Jim Shell, Consultant, Ellicott City, MD 21043, U.S.A. John E. Stauffer, Stauffer Technology, 6 Pecksland Road, Greenwich, CT 06831, U.S.A. Contents Preface ............................................................................. vii Contributors (Volume 1.) .................................................. ix Contributors (Volume 2.) .................................................. x Contributors (Volume 3.) .................................................. xi Volume 1. Principles and Properties 1. Chemistry and Physics .............................................. 1:1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................... 1:2 1.2 Composition ................................................................. 1:5 1.2.1 Proteins ....................................................... 1:9 1.2.2 Lipids ........................................................... 1:18 1.2.3 Lactose ........................................................ 1:26 1.2.4 Minor Components ...................................... 1:28 Structure ....................................................................... 1:30 1.3.1 Casein Micelles ........................................... 1:30 1.3.2 Fat Globules ................................................ 1:41 Physical Properties ...................................................... 1:49 1.4.1 Density ........................................................ 1:49 1.4.2 Viscosity ...................................................... 1:50 1.4.3 Freezing Point ............................................. 1:52 1.3 1.4 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. v vi Contents 1.4.4 Electrochemistry .......................................... 1:54 1.4.5 Surface Tension .......................................... 1:56 1.4.6 Acid-Base Equilibria ..................................... 1:57 1.4.7 Heat Capacity and Thermal Conductivity ................................................. 1:60 Optical Properties ........................................ 1:60 1.5 Summary ...................................................................... 1:61 1.6 Future Developments ................................................... 1:62 1.7 References ................................................................... 1:62 Analyses .................................................................... 1:83 2.1 1:85 1.4.8 2. Introduction ................................................................... 2.1.1 2.2 2.3 Purpose of Analysis of Dairy Products ...................................................... 1:85 2.1.2 Sources of Additional Information ................ 1:86 2.1.3 Types of Analyses ....................................... 1:86 Sampling ...................................................................... 1:86 2.2.1 General Comments ...................................... 1:86 2.2.2 Sampling of Liquid Products ........................ 1:87 2.2.3 Sampling of Dry Products ............................ 1:88 2.2.4 Sampling of Butter ....................................... 1:88 2.2.5 Sampling of Cheese .................................... 1:88 Tests for Milk Composition ........................................... 1:89 2.3.1 Fat ............................................................... 1:89 2.3.2 Total Solids .................................................. 1:96 2.3.3 Protein ......................................................... 1:98 2.3.4 Lactose ........................................................ 1:99 2.3.5 Ash .............................................................. 1:101 2.3.6 Vitamins ....................................................... 1:101 2.3.7 Minerals ....................................................... 1:102 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Contents 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Tests for Milk Quality .................................................... 1:102 2.4.1 Titratable Acidity .......................................... 1:102 2.4.2 Added Water ................................................ 1:105 2.4.3 Sediment ..................................................... 1:106 2.4.4 Antibiotics .................................................... 1:107 2.4.5 Acid Degree Value ....................................... 1:112 2.4.6 Iodine and Hypochlorites ............................. 1:113 2.4.7 Aflatoxins ..................................................... 1:113 2.4.8 Pesticides .................................................... 1:114 Tests for Abnormal Milk ............................................... 1:115 2.5.1 “Cow-Side” Tests ......................................... 1:115 2.5.2 Wisconsin Mastitis Test ............................... 1:116 2.5.3 Somatic Cell Count ...................................... 1:117 Microbiological Methods .............................................. 1:120 2.6.1 Aerobic Plate Count ..................................... 1:121 2.6.2 Coliform Count ............................................. 1:126 2.6.3 Tests for Specific Spoilage Bacteria ............ 1:131 2.6.4 Tests for Specific Pathogenic Bacteria ....................................................... 1:135 Selected Analytical Techniques for Dairy Products ....................................................................... 1:139 2.7.1 2.8 vii Assurance of Adequate Pasteurization .............................................. 1:139 2.7.2 Total Solids in Butter and Cheese ................ 1:141 2.7.3 Salt in Butter and Cheese ............................ 1:142 2.7.4 Sorbic Acid in Cheese ................................. 1:144 2.7.5 Overrun in Frozen Dairy Desserts ................ 1:145 Sensory Analysis .......................................................... 1:146 2.8.1 Sensory vs. Chemical and Microbiological Methods .............................. This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 1:146 viii Contents 2.9 3. Summary ...................................................................... 1:148 2.10 Future Developments ................................................... 1:148 2.11 References ................................................................... 1:149 Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products ....................... 1:157 3.1 The Senses .................................................................. 1:158 3.1.1 Introduction .................................................. 1:158 3.1.2 Taste ........................................................... 1:159 3.1.3 Smell ........................................................... 1:162 3.1.4 Sight ............................................................ 1:163 3.1.5 Hearing ........................................................ 1:165 3.1.6 Touch .......................................................... 1:166 Sensory Evaluation Techniques .................................. 1:166 3.2.1 Introduction .................................................. 1:166 3.2.2 Affective Testing .......................................... 1:168 3.2.3 Discrimination Testing ................................. 1:170 3.2.4 Descriptive Analysis ..................................... 1:171 Application of Sensory Analysis to Dairy Products ....................................................................... 1:174 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.4 3.5 The Philosophy of Judging of Dairy Products ...................................................... 1:175 Descriptive Sensory Defects of Dairy Products ........... 1:175 3.4.1 Fluid Milk and Cream ................................... 1:175 3.4.2 Cottage Cheese ........................................... 1:185 3.4.3 Butter ........................................................... 1:198 3.4.4 Ice Cream and Related Products ................. 1:214 3.4.5 Cheese ........................................................ 1:229 3.4.6 Cultured Products ........................................ 1:243 3.4.7 Yogurt .......................................................... 1:254 3.4.8 Dry Milk ....................................................... 1:267 References ................................................................... 1:274 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Contents 4. ix Functional Properties of Milk Proteins ....................... 1:277 4.1 Introduction ................................................................... 1:278 4.2 Composition and Principal Physicochemical Properties of Major Milk Proteins ................................. 1:280 4.2.1 Major Protein Components in Milk ............... 1:280 4.2.2 Principal Physicochemical Properties of Milk Proteins ............................................ 1:281 Major Functional Properties of Milk Proteins ........................................................................ 1:282 4.3.1 Water-Protein Interactions ........................... 1:282 4.3.2 Protein-Protein Interactions ......................... 1:292 4.3.3 Protein-Surface Interactions ........................ 1:302 Some Selected Processing Effects on the Functional Properties of Major Milk Proteins ............... 1:325 4.4.1 Effects of Heat Treatments .......................... 1:325 4.4.2 Membrane Separation Processes ................ 1:329 4.5 Conclusion .................................................................... 1:332 4.6 Acknowledgments ........................................................ 1:333 4.7 References ................................................................... 1:334 Appendix: Product Listing ................................................. 1:355 Advertising to Instantizers/Agglomerators ............................ 1:355 Instruments to X-Ray Inspection ........................................... 1:385 4.3 4.4 Volume 2. Product Manufacturing 1. Yogurt ........................................................................ 2:1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................... 2:2 1.2 Definition of Yogurt ....................................................... 2:7 1.2.1 Standard of Identity and Regulatory Aspects of Yogurt ........................................ This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 2:8 x Contents 1.2.2 National Yogurt Association Criteria for Live and Active Culture Yogurt ............... 2:10 Frozen Yogurt .............................................. 2:11 Yogurt Starters ............................................................. 2:13 1.3.1 Taxonomy of Yogurt Bacteria ...................... 2:15 1.3.2 Production of Yogurt Starters ....................... 2:20 General Principles of Manufacture .............................. 2:22 1.4.1 Ingredients and Equipment .......................... 2:22 1.4.2 Mix Preparation ........................................... 2:25 1.4.3 Heat Treatment ............................................ 2:25 1.4.4 Homogenization ........................................... 2:27 1.4.5 Fermentation ............................................... 2:27 1.4.6 Packaging .................................................... 2:27 Yogurt Production ........................................................ 2:28 1.2.3 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5.1 Yogurt Ingredients and Flavor, Texture, and Rheological Aspects ............... 2:28 Yogurt Starter and Its Contribution to Texture and Flavor ....................................... 2:31 Manufacturing Procedures ........................... 2:32 Yogurt Quality Control .................................................. 2:36 1.6.1 Refrigerated Yogurt ..................................... 2:36 1.6.2 Frozen Yogurt .............................................. 2:39 Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Health Properties of Yogurt ..................................................... 2:39 1.7.1 Prefermentation Changes ............................ 2:39 1.7.2 Changes During Fermentation ..................... 2:41 1.7.3 Postfermentation Changes .......................... 2:45 1.7.4 Prophylactic and Therapeutic Properties .................................................... 2:45 References ................................................................... 2:54 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.6 1.7 1.8 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Contents 2. xi Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts ................................ 2:57 2.1 2:59 Introduction ................................................................... 2.1.1 2.2 Steps in the Manufacture of Ice Cream .......................................................... 2:59 2.1.2 Ice Cream as a "Generic" Name .................. 2:60 2.1.3 Government Regulations ............................. 2:60 2.1.4 Types of Frozen Desserts ............................ 2:61 Selection of Ingredient ................................................. 2:61 2.2.1 Sources of Dairy Products ........................... 2:62 2.2.2 Nonconcentrated Milk Products ................... 2:63 2.2.3 Concentrated Milk Products ......................... 2:67 2.2.4 Perishable Concentrated Milk Products ...................................................... 2:67 Dehydrated Concentrated Milk Products ...................................................... 2:69 2.2.6 Dry Whey ..................................................... 2:73 2.2.7 Dried Buttermilk ........................................... 2:73 2.2.8 Other Dry Ingredients .................................. 2:74 2.2.9 Preserved Fluid Concentrated Milk Products ...................................................... 2:74 2.2.10 Frozen Concentrated Milk Products ............. 2:75 2.2.11 Substitutes for Dairy Products ..................... 2:75 2.2.12 Sweetening Agents ...................................... 2:76 2.2.13 Sucrose ....................................................... 2:79 2.2.14 Dextrose ...................................................... 2:80 2.2.15 Corn Syrups ................................................. 2:81 2.2.16 Honey .......................................................... 2:82 2.2.17 Stabilizers .................................................... 2:82 2.2.18 The Mode of Stabilizer Action ...................... 2:87 2.2.19 Emulsifiers ................................................... 2:90 2.2.20 Miscellaneous Ingredients ........................... 2:92 2.2.5 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. xii Contents 2.3 Calculations and Mix Standardization ......................... 2.3.1 Calculating MSNF in Skim Milk and Cream .......................................................... 2:92 Standardization of Ice Cream Mixes – the Simplest Case ........................................ 2:93 The Serum Point Method of Mix Standardization ............................................ 2:94 Algebraic Method of Mix Standardization ............................................ 2:100 Restandardizing a Mix of Erroneous Composition ................................................. 2:104 2.3.6 Mix Made in a Vacuum Pan ......................... 2:108 2.3.7 Calculating Density and Degrees Baume (Be) ................................................. 2:109 Formulation .................................................................. 2:110 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.4 2.4.1 Premium and Superpremium Products ...................................................... 2:112 2.4.2 The "All-Natural" Designation ...................... 2:113 2.4.3 Formulations for a Plain (White) Ice Cream Mix ................................................... 2:114 Formulations for a Chocolate Ice Cream Mix ................................................... 2:114 2.4.5 Fruit Ice Cream ............................................ 2:115 2.4.6 Products Containing 2 to 7% Fat ................. 2:116 2.4.7 Products Containing 0 to 2% Fat ................. 2:117 2.4.8 Sherbets and Ices ........................................ 2:117 2.4.9 Direct-Draw Shakes ..................................... 2:118 2.4.10 Frozen Yogurt .............................................. 2:119 2.4.11 Other Frozen Desserts ................................ 2:119 2.4.12 Nonstandardized Products ........................... 2:120 Mix Processing ............................................................. 2:121 2.5.1 2:121 2.4.4 2.5 2:92 Pasteurization .............................................. 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Contents xiii 2.5.2 Homogenization ........................................... 2:125 2.5.3 Mix Cooling and Storage .............................. 2:127 Flavoring of Frozen Desserts ....................................... 2:129 2.6.1 Flavor Character and Intensity ..................... 2:132 2.6.2 Quantity of Flavoring .................................... 2:133 2.6.3 Propriety Flavorings ..................................... 2:134 2.6.4 Vanilla Flavor ............................................... 2:134 2.6.5 Chocolate Flavor ......................................... 2:135 Freezing of the Mix ....................................................... 2:136 2.7.1 Amount of Water Frozen .............................. 2:138 2.8 Ice Cream Hardening ................................................... 2:142 2.9 Defects of Ice Cream ................................................... 2:145 2.9.1 Defects Identified by Sight ........................... 2:146 2.9.2 Defective Container ..................................... 2:146 2.9.3 Product Appearance .................................... 2:146 2.9.4 Meltdown Characteristics of Ice Cream .......................................................... 2:146 2.9.5 Defects of Texture ....................................... 2:147 2.9.6 Defects in Body ........................................... 2:147 2.9.7 Flavor Defects ............................................. 2:147 2.9.8 Defects Contributed by the Dairy Ingredients ................................................... 2:148 Defects Due to Mix Processing and Storage ........................................................ 2:149 2.9.10 Defects Due to Flavoring Materials .............. 2:149 2.9.11 Defects Due to Sweetening Agents ............. 2:149 2.9.12 Defects Due to Storage of Ice Cream .......... 2:149 2.9.13 Defects of Frozen Dessert Novelties ............ 2:150 2.10 Plant Management ....................................................... 2:151 2.11 Active Areas of Research in Ice Cream ....................... 2:153 2.11.1 Ice Cream Mix ............................................. 2:153 2.6 2.7 2.9.9 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. xiv 3. Contents 2.11.2 Ice Cream Structure ..................................... 2:155 2.11.3 Processing and Freezing ............................. 2:156 2.12 References ................................................................... 2:157 Cheese ...................................................................... 2:161 3.1 Introduction ................................................................... 2:163 3.1.1 Classification ............................................... 2:164 3.1.2 Cheese Production and Composition ........... 2:165 3.2 Heat Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking .................. 2:169 3.3 Cheese Starter Cultures .............................................. 2:173 3.3.1 Types of Cultures ........................................ 2:174 3.3.2 Leuconostoc ................................................ 2:178 3.3.3 Streptococcus salivarius subsp. Thermophilus ............................................... 2:178 3.3.4 Lactobacilli ................................................... 2:179 3.3.5 Lactobacilli Found During Cheese Ripening ...................................................... 2:179 3.3.6 Propionibacteria ........................................... 2:180 3.3.7 Pediococci ................................................... 2:180 3.3.8 Molds ........................................................... 2:181 Growth of Starter Bacteria in Milk ................................ 2:182 3.4.1 Inhibitors of Starter Bacteria ........................ 2:182 Starter Culture Systems ............................................... 2:187 3.5.1 Culture Systems .......................................... 2:188 Culture Production and Bulk Starter Propagation .................................................................. 2:191 3.6.1 History ......................................................... 2:191 3.6.2 Concentrated Cultures ................................. 2:191 3.6.3 Bulk Starter Propagation .............................. 2:192 3.6.4 pH-Controlled Propagation of Cultures ....................................................... 2:194 3.4 3.5 3.6 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Contents xv 3.6.5 General Comments ...................................... 2:196 3.6.6 Helpful Points to Phage-Free Starters ......... 2:196 Manufacture of Cheese ................................................ 2:197 3.7.1 Cheddar Cheese .......................................... 2:200 3.7.2 Stirred Curd or Granular Cheddar Cheese ........................................................ 2:200 3.7.3 Colby Cheese .............................................. 2:200 3.7.4 Swiss Cheese .............................................. 2:201 3.7.5 Parmesan Cheese ....................................... 2:201 3.7.6 Mozzarella and Provolone Cheese .............. 2:205 3.7.7 Brick Cheese ............................................... 2:205 3.7.8 Mold-Ripened Cheese ................................. 2:206 3.8 Cheese from Ultrafiltered Retentate ............................ 2:207 3.9 Salting of Cheese ......................................................... 2:210 3.10 Cheese Ripening and Flavor Development ................. 2:210 3.10.1 Proteolysis of Caseins ................................. 2:211 3.10.2 Proteolysis in Cheese .................................. 2:212 3.10.3 Amino Acid Transformations ........................ 2:213 3.10.4 Flavor Development ..................................... 2:213 3.11 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Cheddar Cheese .......................................................... 2:215 3.11.1 Fate of Lactose ............................................ 2:215 3.11.2 Fate of Casein ............................................. 2:216 3.11.3 Microbiological Changes .............................. 2:217 3.11.4 Fate of Fat ................................................... 2:218 3.11.5 Flavor of Cheddar Cheese ........................... 2:219 3.12 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Swiss Cheese .............................................................. 2:219 3.12.1 Fate of Lactose ............................................ 2:220 3.12.2 CO2 Production ............................................ 2:220 3.7 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.