Tài liệu Ludwigs applied process design for chemical and petrochemical plants, fourth edition

Uploaded by: Ebooks Chemical Engineering https://www.facebook.com/pages/Ebooks-Chemical-Engineering/238197077030 For More Books, softwares & tutorials Related to Chemical Engineering Join Us @facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Ebooks-ChemicalEngineering/238197077030 @facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllAboutChemcalEngineering @facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/10436265147/ ADMIN: I.W Ludwig’s Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants This page intentionally left blank Ludwig’s Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Volume 1 Fourth Edition A. Kayode Coker AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • • NEW YORK • OXFORD SYDNEY • TOKYO Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier • PARIS Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Copyright © 2007, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting “Support & Contact” then “Copyright and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.” Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Coker, A. Kayode. Ludwig’s applied process design for chemical and petrochemical plants. — 4th ed. / A. Kayode Coker. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Applied process design for chemical and petrochemical plants / Ernest E. Ludwig. 3rd ed. c1995-c2001. Includes index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7766-0 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7506-7766-X (alk. paper) 1. Chemical processes. 2. Chemical plants—Equipment and supplies. 3. Petroleum industry and trade—Equipment and supplies. I. Ludwig, Ernest E. Applied process design for chemical and petrochemical plants. II. Title. TP155.7.C653 2007 600 .283—dc22 2006038019 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 13: 978-0-7506-7766-0 ISBN 10: 0-7506-7766-X For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com Printed in the United States of America 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org In Gratitude to Our Creator with Awe, Humility, Dedication and Love In Memory of Ernest E. Ludwig (A Great Chemical Engineer) and In Loving Memory of my dear Mother Modupe Ajibike Coker To my wife, Victoria Love and thanks This page intentionally left blank Contents PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xi CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND GASES 103 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION xii 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 FOREWORD xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiv BIOGRAPHY xv DISCLAIMER xvi USING THE SOFTWARE AND EXCEL SPREADSHEET PROGRAMS xvii CHAPTER 0 RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY xviii CHAPTER 1 PROCESS PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND FLOWSHEET DESIGN 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 Organizational Structure 1 Process Design Scope 3 Role of the Process Design Engineer 3 Computer-Aided Flowsheeting 4 The Sequential Modular Simulation 6 The Equation Modular Approach 9 Degrees-of-Freedom Modeling 9 Isobutane Chemicals iC4 H10  10 Flowsheets – Types 15 Flowsheet Presentation 16 General Arrangements Guide 17 Computer-Aided Flowsheet Design/Drafting 17 Operator Training Simulator System 18 Flowsheet Symbols 19 Working Schedules 39 Information Checklists 41 System of Units 56 System Design Pressures 56 Time Planning and Scheduling 57 Plant Layout 65 Rules of Thumb Estimating 67 Nomenclature 67 References 67 Further Reading 68 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 CHAPTER 4 FLUID FLOW 133 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 CHAPTER 2 COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMIC EVALUATION 69 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 Density of Liquids 103 Viscosity of Gas 104 Viscosity of Liquids 104 Heat Capacity of Gas 105 Heat Capacity of Liquid 106 Thermal Conductivity of Gas 107 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids and Solids 107 Surface Tension 108 Vapor Pressure 109 Enthalpy of Vaporization 110 Enthalpy of Formation 111 Gibbs Energy of Formation 112 Solubility in Water Containing Salt 113 Solubility in Water as a function of Temperature 114 Henry’s Law Constant for Gases in Water 114 Solubility of Gases in Water 115 Solubility and Henry’s Law Constant for Sulfur Compounds in Water 116 Solubility of Naphthenes in Water 116 Solubility and Henry’s Law Constant for Nitrogen Compounds in Water 118 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Liquid 119 Volumetric expansion rate 120 Adsorption on Activated Carbon 120 Diffusion Coefficients (Diffusivities) 121 Compressibility Z-Factor of Natural Gases 124 Generalized Compressibility Z-Factor 125 Gas Mixtures 127 Nomenclature 131 Greek Letters 131 References 131 Further Reading 132 Introduction 69 Capital Cost Estimation 69 Equipment Cost Estimations by Capacity Ratio Exponents 71 Yearly Cost Indices 72 Factored Cost Estimate 74 Detailed Factorial Cost Estimates 74 Bare Module Cost for Equipment 78 Summary of the Factorial Method 79 Computer Cost Estimating 80 Project Evaluation 80 Nomenclature 101 References 101 Further Reading 102 Websites 102 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 vii Introduction 133 Flow of fluids in pipes 133 Scope 134 Basis 137 Incompressible Flow 137 Compressible Flow: Vapors and Gases [4] 137 Important Pressure Level References 138 Factors of “Safety” for Design Basis 138 Pipe, Fittings, and Valves 138 Pipe 138 Usual Industry Pipe Sizes and Classes Practice 139 Background Information (also see Chapter 5) 141 Reynolds Number, Re (Sometimes used NRE ) 143 Pipe Relative Roughness 146 Darcy Friction Factor, f 147 Friction Head Loss (Resistance) in Pipe, Fittings, and Connections 154 Pressure Drop in Fittings, Valves, and Connections 157 Velocity and Velocity Head 157 Equivalent lengths of fittings 157 L/D values in laminar region 157 Validity of K Values 158 Laminar Flow 158 Loss Coefficient 161 Sudden Enlargement or Contraction [2] 167 viii CONTENTS 4.25 Piping Systems 168 4.26 Resistance of Valves 171 4.27 Flow Coefficients for Valves, Cv 171 4.28 Nozzles and Orifices [4] 172 4.29 Alternate Calculation Basis for Piping Systems Friction Head Loss: Liquids 187 4.30 Equivalent Length Concept for Valves, Fittings and so on 187 4.31 Friction Pressure Drop for Non-viscous Liquids 192 4.32 Estimation of Pressure Loss across Control Valves 196 4.33 The Direct Design of a Control Valve 199 4.34 Friction Loss For Water Flow 200 4.35 Flow of Water from Open-End Horizontal Pipe 200 4.36 Water Hammer [23] 203 4.37 Friction Pressure Drop For Compressible Fluid Flow 203 4.38 Compressible Fluid Flow in Pipes 206 4.39 Maximum Flow and Pressure Drop 206 4.40 Sonic Conditions Limiting Flow of Gases and Vapors 206 4.41 The Mach Number, Ma 208 4.42 Mathematical Model of Compressible Isothermal Flow 209 4.43 Flow rate through pipeline 209 4.44 Pipeline pressure drop P 210 4.45 Critical Pressure Ratio 211 4.46 Adiabatic Flow 219 4.47 The Expansion Factor, Y 219 4.48 Misleading Rules of Thumb for Compressible Fluid Flow 223 4.49 Other Simplified Compressible Flow Methods 225 4.50 Friction Drop for Flow of Vapors, Gases, and Steam 225 4.51 Darcy Rational Relation for Compressible Vapors and Gases 230 4.52 Velocity of Compressible Fluids in Pipe 233 4.53 Alternate Solution to Compressible Flow Problems 234 4.54 Procedure 237 4.55 Friction Drop for Compressible Natural Gas in Long Pipe Lines 238 4.56 Panhandle-A Gas Flow Formula [4] 245 4.57 Modified Panhandle Flow Formula [26] 247 4.58 American Gas Association (AGA) Dry Gas Method 247 4.59 Complex Pipe Systems Handling Natural (or similar) Gas 247 4.60 Two-Phase Liquid and Gas Flow in Process Piping 247 4.61 Flow Patterns 248 4.62 Flow Regimes 248 4.63 Pressure Drop 250 4.64 Erosion–Corrosion 252 4.65 Total System Pressure Drop 253 4.66 Pipe Sizing Rules 257 4.67 A Solution For All Two-Phase Problems 258 4.68 Gas – Liquid Two-Phase Vertical Downflow 264 4.69 Pressure Drop in Vacuum Systems 268 4.70 Low Absolute Pressure Systems for Air [62] 271 4.71 Vacuum for Other Gases and Vapors 271 4.72 Pipe Sizing for Non-Newtonian Flow 273 4.73 Slurry Flow in Process Plant Piping 273 4.74 Pressure Drop for Flashing Liquids 274 4.75 Sizing Condensate Return Lines 276 4.76 Design Procedure Using Sarco Chart [74] 276 4.77 Flow Through Packed Beds 277 Nomenclature 287 References 299 Further Reading 301 Software for Calculating Pressure Drop 302 CHAPTER 5 PUMPING OF LIQUIDS 303 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 Pump Design Standardization 304 Basic Parts of a Centrifugal Pump 305 Centrifugal Pump Selection 308 Hydraulic Characteristics For Centrifugal Pumps 311 Suction Head or Suction Lift, hs 316 Discharge Head, hd 317 Velocity Head 319 Friction 323 Net Positive suction Head and Pump Suction 323 Specific Speed 330 Rotative Speed 332 Pumping Systems and Performance 332 Power Requirements for Pumping Through Process Lines 335 Affinity Laws 338 Centrifugal Pump Efficiency 341 Effects of Viscosity 342 Centrifugal Pump Specifications 346 Rotary Pumps 352 Reciprocating Pumps 355 Selection rules-of-thumb 359 Nomenclature 359 References 368 Further Reading 368 CHAPTER 6 MECHANICAL SEPARATIONS 371 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 Particle Size 371 Preliminary Separator Selection 371 Guide to Dust Separator Applications 373 Guide to liquid–Solid Particle Separators 373 Gravity Settlers 373 Terminal velocity 373 Alternate Terminal Velocity Calculation 381 American Petroleum Institute’s Oil Field Separators 382 Modified Method of Happel and Jordan [22] 386 Decanter [25] 386 Impingement Separators 389 Centrifugal Separators 400 Nomenclature 440 References 441 Further Reading 442 CHAPTER 7 MIXING OF LIQUIDS 445 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 Mechanical Components 447 Impellers 447 Equipment for Agitation 461 Flow Patterns 465 Flow visualization 467 Mixing Concepts, Theory, Fundamentals 468 Flow 468 Power 470 Scale of Agitation, SA 481 Mixing Time Correlation 481 Shaft 483 Drive and Gears 483 Steady Bearings 483 Draft Tubes 484 Entrainment 484 Batch or Continuous Mixing 485 Baffles 495 Blending 499 Emulsions 501 CONTENTS 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 Extraction 501 Gas–Liquid Contacting 501 Gas–Liquid Mixing or Dispersion 501 Heat transfer: Coils in Tank, Liquid Agitated 501 Effects of Viscosity on Process Fluid Heat Transfer Film Coefficient 501 7.25 Heat Transfer Area 505 7.26 In-line, Static, or Motionless Mixing 506 Nomenclature 520 References 521 Further Reading 522 Websites 523 CHAPTER 8 EJECTORS AND MECHANICAL VACUUM SYSTEMS 525 8.1 Ejectors 525 8.2 Vacuum Safety 525 8.3 Typical Range Performance of Vacuum Producers 525 8.4 Features 526 8.5 Types 527 8.6 Materials of Construction 529 8.7 Vacuum Range Guide 529 8.8 Pressure Terminology 532 8.9 Pressure Drop at Low Absolute Pressures 532 8.10 Performance Factors 532 8.11 Types of Loads 540 8.12 Load Variation 551 8.13 Steam and Water Requirements 552 8.14 Ejector System Specifications 552 8.15 Ejector Selection Procedure 554 8.16 Water Jet Ejectors 556 8.17 Steam Jet Thermocompressors 557 8.18 Ejector Control 557 8.19 Time Required For System Evacuation 558 8.20 Alternate Pumpdown to a Vacuum Using a Mechanical Pump 559 8.21 Evaluation with Steam Jets 560 8.22 Mechanical Vacuum Pumps 562 8.23 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps/Compressor 562 8.24 Rotary Vane Vacuum Pumps 565 8.25 Rotary Blowers or Rotary Lobe-Type Blowers 565 8.26 Rotary Piston Pumps 569 Nomenclature 572 References 572 Further Reading 573 Websites on Ejectors, Vacuum systems, and Scrubbers 573 CHAPTER 9 PROCESS SAFETY AND PRESSURE-RELIEVING DEVICES 575 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Types of Positive Pressure-relieving Devices (see manufacturers’ catalogs for design details) 575 Types of Valves/Relief Devices 577 Materials of Construction 582 General Code Requirements [1] 582 Relief Mechanisms 587 Pressure Settings and Design Basis 588 Unfired Pressure Vessels Only, But Not Fired or Unfired Steam Boilers 593 Relieving Capacity of Combinations of Safety Relief Valves and Rupture disks or Non-reclosure devices (References Asme code, Par-UG-127, U-132) 594 Establishing Relieving or Set Pressures 596 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 9.36 9.37 9.38 9.39 9.40 9.41 9.42 9.43 9.44 9.45 9.46 9.47 9.48 9.49 9.50 9.51 9.52 9.53 ix Selection and Application 597 Capacity Requirements Evaluation for Process Operation (Non-Fire) 597 Selection Features: Safety, Safety Relief Valves, and Rupture Disks 604 Calculations of Relieving Areas: Safety and Relief Valves 607 Standard Pressure-Relief Valves – Relief Area Discharge Openings 607 Sizing Safety Relief Type Devices for Required Flow Area at Time of Relief∗ 607 Effects of Two-Phase Vapor–Liquid Mixture on Relief Valve Capacity 607 Sizing for Gases, Vapors, or Liquids for Conventional Valves with Constant Back pressure Only 607 Orifice Area Calculations [42] 610 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure-Relief Valves Requiring Capacity Certification [5d] 612 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure-Relief Valves not Requiring Capacity Certification [5d] 612 Reaction Forces 616 Calculations of Orifice Flow Area Using Pressure Relieving Balanced Bellows Valves, with variable or constant back pressure 616 Sizing Valves for Liquid Expansion (Hydraulic Expansion of Liquid Filled Systems/Equipment/Piping) 620 Sizing Valves for Subcritical Flow: Gas or Vapor but not Steam [5d] 622 Emergency Pressure Relief: Fires and Explosions Rupture Disks 625 External Fires 625 Set Pressures for External Fires 625 Heat Absorbed 626 Surface Area Exposed to Fire 626 Relief Capacity for Fire Exposure 628 Code Requirements for External Fire Conditions 628 Design Procedure 628 Pressure-Relief Valve Orifice Areas on Vessels Containing Only Gas, Unwetted Surface 628 Rupture Disk Sizing Design and Specification 630 Specifications to Manufacturer 630 Size Selection 630 Calculation of Relieving Areas: Rupture Disks for Non-Explosive Service 630 The Manufacturing Range 631 Selection of Burst Pressure for Disk, Pb (Table 9-3) 631 Effects of Temperature on Disk 632 Rupture Disk Assembly Pressure Drop 633 Gases and Vapors: Rupture Disks [5a, Par, 4.8] 633 API for subsonic flow: gas or vapor (not steam) 635 Liquids: Rupture disk 635 Sizing for Combination of Rupture Disk and Pressure-Relief Valve in Series Combination 635 Pressure–Vacuum Relief for Low Pressure Storage Tanks 638 Basic Venting for Low Pressure Storage Vessels 638 Non-refrigerated above Ground Tanks; API-Std-2000 640 Corrections to Express Miscellaneous Liquids Venting in Terms of Free Air (14.7 psia and 60 F) 640 Emergency Vent Equipment 644 Refrigerated above Ground and Below Ground Tanks [48] 644 Normal conditions 644 Emergency Venting for Fire Exposure 646 x CONTENTS 9.54 9.55 9.56 9.57 9.58 9.59 9.60 9.61 9.62 9.63 9.64 Flame Arrestors 646 Pilot-Operated Vent Values 647 Explosions 647 Flammability 648 Terminology 651 Mixtures of Flammable Gases 652 Pressure and Temperature Effects 654 Ignition of Flammable Mixtures 656 Aqueous Solutions of Flammable liquids 656 Blast Pressures 656 Tri-Nitro Toluene (TNT) Equivalence for Explosions 662 9.65 Pressure Piling 662 9.66 Blast Scaling 662 9.67 Explosion Venting for Gases/Vapors (Not Dusts) 666 9.68 BLEVES (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions) 667 9.69 Liquid Mist Explosions 668 9.70 Relief Sizing: Explosions of Gases and Vapors 668 9.71 Vent or Relief Area Calculation [10] for Venting of Deflagrations in Low-Strength Enclosures 673 9.72 High-Strength Enclosures for Deflagrations 675 9.73 Determination of Relief Areas for Deflagrations of Gases/Vapors/Mists in High-Strength Enclosures 676 9.74 Dust Explosions 678 9.75 Dust Explosion Characteristics 679 9.76 Evaluating the hazard 682 9.77 Sizing of Vents Methods 688 9.78 The VDI Nomograph Methods 688 9.79 The ST Group Nomograph Method 689 9.80 Regression Analysis from the Kst Nomographs 689 9.81 Equations to Represent the Nomographs 690 9.82 The Vent Ratio Method 695 9.83 Extrapolation/Interpolation of Dust Nomographs 697 9.84 Venting of Bins, Silos, and Hoppers 697 9.85 Sizing guidelines (see [30] for details) 699 9.86 Secondary dust explosions in buildings 699 9.87 Dust Clouds 700 9.88 Dust Explosion Severity 700 9.89 Preventing, Mitigating, and Protection against Dust Explosions 701 9.90 Preventive Explosion Protection 704 9.91 Explosion Suppression 704 9.92 Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions (UVCE) 706 9.93 Effects of Venting Ducts 706 9.94 Maximum Distance between Vents 706 9.95 Runaway Reactions: DIERS 706 9.96 Hazard evaluation in the chemical process Industries 714 9.97 Hazard assessment procedures 715 9.98 Exotherms 715 9.99 Accumulation 715 9.100 Thermal runaway chemical reaction hazards 716 9.101 Heat consumed heating the vessel: The -factor 716 9.102 Onset temperature 717 9.103 Time-to-Maximum Rate 717 9.104 Maximum reaction temperature 717 9.105 Vent sizing package 717 9.106 Vent Sizing Package 2™(VSP2™) 718 9.107 Advanced Reactive system screening tool 719 9.108 Two-phase flow relief sizing for runaway reaction 720 9.109 Runaway reactions 721 9.110 Vapor-pressure systems 721 9.111 Gassy Systems 722 9.112 Hybrid systems 722 9.113 Simplified nomograph method 722 9.114 Vent sizing methods 726 9.115 Vapor-pressure systems 726 9.116 Fauske’s Method 728 9.117 Gassy systems 728 9.118 Homogeneous two-phase venting until disengagement 729 9.119 Two-phase flow through an orifice 729 9.120 Conditions of use 730 9.121 Discharge system design of the vent pipe 730 9.122 Safe discharge 730 9.123 Direct discharge to the atmosphere 730 9.124 DIERS Final Reports 732 9.125 Flares/Flare Stacks 732 9.126 Flares 733 9.127 Sizing 735 9.128 Flame Length [5c] 737 9.129 Flame Distortion [5c] Caused by Wind Velocity 737 9.130 Flare Stack Height 739 9.131 Purging of Flare Stacks and Vessels/Piping 741 9.132 Static Electricity 743 9.133 Compressible flow for discharge piping 744 9.134 Design Equations for Compressible fluid flow for discharge piping 744 9.135 Compressibility factor Z 746 9.136 Discharge Line Sizing 747 9.137 Vent Piping 747 9.138 Discharge Reactive Force 747 9.139 A rapid solution for Sizing depressuring lines [5c] 748 9.140 Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Studies 749 9.141 Study Co-ordination 750 9.142 Hazop of a Batch Process 751 9.143 Limitations of Hazop Studies 752 9.144 Hazard Analysis (HAZAN) 752 9.145 Fault Tree Analysis 754 9.146 Inherently Safer Plant Design 755 Glossary 758 Acronyms and Abbreviations 761 References 763 Further Reading 766 Selected References 769 APPENDIX A A LIST OF ENGINEERING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS AND PROCESS DATA SHEETS 771 APPENDIX B 819 APPENDIX C PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND GASES 827 APPENDIX D 863 APPENDIX E 935 APPENDIX F 949 APPENDIX G ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES 957 APPENDIX H NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES 963 APPENDIX I SCREENSHOT GUIDE TO ABSOFT COMPILER GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE 977 INDEX 985 Preface to the Fourth Edition and some requirements that can be important in the specifications as well as the actual specific design details. An added feature is professional ethics incorporating codes of conduct from the Institution of Chemical Engineers and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. Economic evaluations are essential in determining the viability of any project, so the chemical or process engineer must be able to ascertain the economic impact of a new or existing chemical process and judge whether the project will provide a return on investment for his company. The techniques of economic analysis are used to assess the profitability of projects involving both capital expenditures and yearly operating costs. Because the engineer should have the ready access to essential physical property data of compounds for design calculations of process equipment, this revised volume includes more than 20 physical property data for liquids and gases in Excel spreadsheet format and hardcopy with example problems. Such data are usually found in specialized texts or simulation design packages, or obtained by conducting experiments to measure the properties of individual substances or of mixtures, which may exhibit nonideal behavior, but this is often time-consuming and expensive. Thermodynamic data of this type are required in most calculations such as sizing vessels, process pipe lines, separation of multicomponents, gas absorption and chemical reactor design, and so are now included in this volume. The techniques of applied chemical plant process design continue to improve as the science of chemical engineering develops new and better interpretations of the fundamentals of chemistry, physics, metallurgical, mechanical, and polymer/plastic science. Accordingly, this fourth edition presents additional reliable design methods based on sound experimental data, proven techniques developed by companies and individuals and groups considered competent in their subjects and who are supported by pertinent data. In breaking with tradition of previous editions, the fourth edition has incorporated the use of S.I. units in some of its design calculations. The text also provides useful conversion table in electronic format to aid the engineer when required. Every chapter has been expanded and updated with new materials. The appendix contains many process flow diagrams and piping and instrumentation diagrams (P & IDs) of some chemical processes that should assist the designer for comparison. For further information, and for supplementary materials, please visit http://books.elsevier.com/companions/9780750677660. In addition, all figures and diagrams from this text will also be available online, as well as additional material. This complete revision of Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants, Volume 1, builds upon the late Ernest E. Ludwig’s classic text to further enhance its use as a chemical engineering process design manual of methods and proven fundamentals with supplemental mechanical and related data, nomographs, and charts (some in the expanded appendices). Significantly expanded and thoroughly updated, fourth edition contains new topics that will assist the engineer in examining and analyzing problems and finding design methods and mechanical specifications to secure the proper mechanical hardware to accomplish a process objective. This latest edition includes improved techniques and fundamental design methodologies to guide the engineer in designing process equipment and applying chemical processes to the properly detailed hardware (equipment), because without properly sized and internally detailed hardware, the process will not achieve its unique objective. The various derived and proven equations have been employed in actual plant equipment design, and some of the most reasonable available to inexperienced and experienced engineers (excluding proprietary data and design methods). This book further provides both fundamental theories where applicable and directs application of these theories to applied equations essential in the design effort. A conscious effort has been made to offer guidelines of sound engineering judgment, decisions, and selections with available codes (e.g. ASME, API, ANSI, TEMA, ASTM, NFPA, BS) and specifications, as some of these are illustrated as problems in the text. This approach at presentation of design information serves well for troubleshooting plant operation problems and equipment/system performance analysis. This fourth edition presents many developed and executable computer programs and Excel spreadsheet programs, which are readily available to assist the engineer in his or her design problems. Additionally, there are nearly 50 process data sheets in either Excel spreadsheet format or hard copies that can be readily accessed. This book can be used as a classroom text for senior and graduate level chemical plant design courses at the university level. For the first time, the appendices provide with examples of various numerical methods that prove useful for undergraduate and graduate students. The text material assumes that the reader is at least an undergraduate engineer with a sound knowledge of the fundamentals of the profession. The book will provide the reader with design techniques to actually design as well as mechanical detail for construction. The aim of the process engineer is to ensure that results of his or her process calculations for equipment are specified in terms of something that can be economically constructed or selected from the special designs of manufacturers. This edition follows the format of previous editions in emphasizing the mechanical codes A. Kayode Coker, C.Eng xi Preface to the Third Edition omit several important topics that were covered in the previous edition. Topics such as corrosion and metallurgy, cost estimating, and economics are now left to the more specialized works of several fine authors. The topic of static electricity, however, is treated in the chapter on process safety, and the topic of mechanical drivers, which includes electric motors, is covered in a separate chapter because many specific items of process equipment require some type of electrical or mechanical driver. Even though some topics cannot be covered here, the author hopes that the designer will find design techniques adaptable to 75 percent to 85+ percent of required applications and problems. The techniques of applied chemical plant process design continue to improve as the science of chemical engineering develops new and better interpretations of the fundamentals of chemistry, physics, metallurgical, mechanical, and polymer/plastic sciences. Accordingly, this third edition presents additional reliable design methods based on proven techniques developed by individuals and groups considered competent in their subjects and who are supported by pertinent data. Since the first and second editions, much progress has been made in standardizing (which implies a certain amount of improvement) the hardware components that are used in designing process equipment. Much of the important and basic standardization has been incorporated in this latest edition. Every chapter has been expanded and updated with new material. All of the chapters have been carefully reviewed and older (not necessarily obsolete) material removed and replaced by newer design techniques. It is important to appreciate that not all of the material has been replaced because much of the so-called “older” material is still the best there is today, and still yields good designs. Additional charts and tables have been included to aid in the design methods or explaining the design techniques. The author is indebted to the many industrial firms that have so generously made available certain valuable design data and information. Thus, credit is acknowledged at the appropriate locations in the text, except for the few cases where a specific request was made to omit this credit. The author was encouraged to undertake this work by Dr. James Villbrandt and the late Dr. W. A. Cunningham and Dr. John J. McKetta. The latter two as well as the late Dr. K. A. Kobe offered many suggestions to help establish the usefulness of the material to the broadest group of engineers and as a teaching text. In addition, the author is deeply appreciative of the courtesy of The Dow Chemical Co. for the use of certain noncredited materials and their release for publication. In this regard, particular thanks is given to the late N. D. Griswold and Mr. J. E. Ross. The valuable contribution of associates in checking material and making suggestions is gratefully acknowledged to H. F. Hasenbeck, L. T. McBeth, E. R. Ketchum, J. D. Hajek, W. J. Evers, and D. A. Gibson. The courtesy of the Rexall Chemical Co. to encourage completion of the work is also gratefully appreciated. This volume of Applied Process Design is intended to be a chemical engineering process design manual of methods and proven fundamentals with supplemental mechanical and related data and charts (some in the expanded Appendix). It will assist the engineer in examining and analyzing a problem and finding a design method and mechanical specifications to secure the proper mechanical hardware to accomplish a particular process objective. An expanded chapter on safety requirements for chemical plants and equipment design and application stresses the applicable Codes, design methods, and the sources of important new data. This manual is not intended to be a handbook filled with equations and various data with no explanation of application. Rather, it is a guide for the engineer in applying chemical processes to the properly detailed hardware (equipment), because without properly sized and internally detailed hardware, the process very likely will not accomplish its unique objective. This book does not develop or derive theoretical equations; instead, it provides direct application of sound theory to applied equations useful in the immediate design effort. Most of the recommended equations have been used in actual plant equipment design and are considered to be some of the most reasonable available (excluding proprietary data and design methods) that can be handled by both the inexperienced as well as the experienced engineer. A conscious effort has been made to offer guidelines of judgment, decisions, and selections, and some of this will also be found in the illustrative problems. My experience has shown that this approach at presentation of design information serves well for troubleshooting plant operation problems and equipment/systems performance analysis. This book also can serve as a classroom text for senior and graduate level chemical plant design courses at the university level. The text material assumes that the reader is an under-graduate engineer with one or two years of engineering fundamentals or a graduate engineer with a sound knowledge of the fundamentals of the profession. This book will provide the reader with design techniques to actually design as well as mechanically detail and specify. It is the author’s philosophy that the process engineer has not adequately performed his or her function unless the results of a process calculation for equipment are specified in terms of something that can be economically built or selected from the special designs of manufacturers and can by visual or mental techniques be mechanically interpreted to actually perform the process function for which it was designed. Considerable emphasis in this book is placed on the mechanical Codes and some of the requirements that can be so important in the specifications as well as the actual specific design details. Many of the mechanical and metallurgical specifics that are important to good design practice are not usually found in standard mechanical engineering texts. The chapters are developed by design function and not in accordance with previously suggested standards for unit operations. In fact, some of the chapters use the same principles, but require different interpretations that take into account the process and the function the equipment performs in the process. Because of the magnitude of the task of preparing the material for this new edition in proper detail, it has been necessary to Ernest E. Ludwig, P.E. xii Foreword Since the publication of the previous edition of Volume 1 in 1995 there have been significant developments in process design as applied to chemical and petrochemical plant. All areas of safety are of importance because of ethical, legal and loss prevention constraints. Lower levels of fugitive emissions are now tolerable and health hazard control is a major concern. Hence an increased proportion of design effort now tends to be spent on safety studies. The competitive environment in which plants operate necessitates that equipment will perform reliably to specification. But no design can be developed in isolation from economic factors. Some degree of standardization of equipment can result in both capital cost and operative cost savings. When the accuracy of design procedures can be relied upon, “lean design” which avoids unjustified allowances for contingencies can be advantageous. However experience has also shown that in some cases “over design” may be beneficial in allowing extra capacity to be extracted economically. Probably the major changes in design procedures however have been those made possible by the increased application, and sophistication of computer programs. This volume has therefore been extensively revised and contains a new chapter covering the physical properties of liquids and gases, with tables of properties as an appendix. Cost estimation and economic evaluation procedures are dealt with in a new chapter. Hazard identification and analysis, and additional topics in design for safety including concepts in the introduction of inherent safety, are now covered. It is also timely to include material on engineering ethics. Design engineers will find the inclusion of numerous computer programs of particular value. These are supplemented by appendices containing mathematical functions, analytical and numerical analysis with examples of the use of Fortran and Excel programs to solve selected mathematical problems in chemical process engineering design. It would be impracticable to deal in one volume with all the techniques and design procedures which engineers now rely upon. As in previous editions, specific topics e. g. metallurgical considerations, associated fire protection systems are excluded. But with the fourth up-date this volume serves as a guide to a majority of design techniques. Moreover it is extensively referenced to other sources of information and data up to 2006. Easier access to information and the revolutionary developments in computing have proved of immense benefit to designers. But applied process design remains a complex and demanding task. This volume will be of considerable assistance to all those involved in it. xiii Dr. C. J. Mumford Acknowledgments Emulating the work of the late Ernest E. Ludwig was a considerable challenge, as he provided the chemical engineering communities with classic works that have withstood the test of time. I hope that this volume at least measures up to his works. Chemical engineering even in the petroleum and petrochemical industries is always evolving with new developments correlations, techniques, data, and nomographs. Examples of these new techniques are in fluid flow (Chapter 4), involving the works of Professor Ron Darby (3-K Method for determining loss coefficient for pipe fittings and valves) and Mr. Trey Walters for compressible fluid flow. Many of these new works and techniques are found in various chapters of the text. Chapter 9 provides extensive work on two-phase runaway reactions pioneered by Dr. Hans Fauske. I wish to express my profound gratitude to the following for giving their time in proofreading various sections and making valuable comments and suggestions; to many others who have provided many new materials in enhancing and improving this latest edition of Applied Process Design. To Professor Ron Darby for his critical review and suggestions on Fluid flow chapter. His expertise and suggestions are greatly appreciated. I am grateful to Mr Lee Partin for reviewing and providing valuable comments on Chapter 1, Dr. C. J. Mumford for his encouragement, comments, and suggestions on Chapter 2, to Mr. Trey Walters for his valuable comments and suggestions on Chapter 4, to Dr. Hans Fauske for his comments and suggestions on Chapter 9, to Mr. Mohammad ElDoma for his time and effort in providing valuable materials, which have greatly enhanced the various chapters, Mr. Joseph Rivera for his dedication, professionalism, and effort in providing many detailed drawings in the text. Joseph, well done. To Mr. Ahmed Mutawa for developing the conversion table software for the book. Thank you, Ahmed. Sincere gratitude to many institutions and companies that have provided various materials, which have been included in the text. In particular, Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery (SASREF); Crane Co.; Fauske & Associates, LLC.; Armfield, U.K.; Chemineer, Pfaudler-Balfour Inc.; Krebs Engineers; Envision Systems, Inc.; Trident Computers Resources; Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K.; American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Hydrocarbon Processing; Chemical Engineering. I am indebted to the many industrial firms that have so generously made available certain valuable design data and information. Thus, credit is acknowledged at the appropriate locations in the text, except for the cases where a specific request was made to omit this credit. I was encouraged to undertake this project by Mr. Phil Carmical, formerly of Elsevier. Sincere thanks to Phil for first proposing this project and his guidance during the early part of the project; to Mr. Tim Calk, former editor of Gulf Publishing Company, for his encouragement and guidance; to Ms. Priyaa Menon of Integra Software Services for her guidance and suggestions during the production of the text. To production and editorial staff of Elsevier and in particular to Ms. Andrea Sherman for her editing, support, and understanding, Ms. Melinda Ritchie for her excellent production work of the book and to Mr. Theron Shreve, former editor of Elsevier. xiv Biography holds a B.Sc. honors degree in chemical engineering, an M.Sc. in process analysis and development, and a Ph.D. in chemical engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K., and a Teachers’ certificate in Education at University of London. He has directed and conducted short courses for blue chip companies in the U.K. and for SABIC industries in Saudi Arabia. He has published several articles in international journals, and is an author of Fortran Programs for Chemical Process Design, Analysis and Simulation, Gulf Publishing Co., Modeling of Chemical Kinetics and Reactor Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, and a book chapter in Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, vol. 61., Marcel Dekker. A. Kayode Coker is Chairman of Chemical & Process Engineering Technology department at Jubail Industrial College in Saudi Arabia. He is both a chartered scientist and a chartered chemical engineer for more than 15 years. He is a fellow of the Institute of Chemical Engineers in the U.K., and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and a member of the American Chemical Society. Prior experience includes process engineering for H & G Engineering in Glasgow, Scotland, Davy Energy and Environmental Ltd., U.K., and Shell Petroleum Development Co. of Nigeria, research and development for Blue Circle Industry in the U.K., and a consultant for A.K.C. Technology, U.K. He xv Disclaimer The material in this book was prepared in good faith and carefully reviewed and edited. The author and publisher, however, cannot be held liable for errors of any sort in these chapters. Furthermore, because the author has no means of checking the reliability of some of the data presented in the public literature, but can only examine them for suitability for the intended purpose herein, this information cannot be warranted. Also because the author cannot vouch for the experience or technical capability of the user of the information and the suitability of the information for the user’s purpose, the use of the contents and the software must be at the best judgment of the user. xvi Using the Software and Excel Spreadsheet Programs Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and a high-level programming language (e.g. Fortran) have been employed in this book. Spreadsheets have improved to the point that they are powerful tools for solving engineering problems. Additionally, the author has employed spreadsheets for Microsoft® Excel because of its widespread availability. Powerful packages such as MathCAD® , Mathematical® , Maple® , TK Solver® , Polymath® and others could be used, but none has the widespread availability as of spreadsheets. The author has developed various codes in the text using the Fortran language, and some software using the screen-handling format under the DOS environment. The use of the high-level programming is still essential for more advanced topics, which cannot readily be handled by a spreadsheet. The author has provided executable codes for all the Fortran source codes in the text. A readme text is provided for the screen-handling software, which is user-friendly. USING FORTRAN PROGRAMS The executable files can be run from Windows by double-clicking on them from the Explorer. However, some programs may find input data files in the same directory. A text file using any text editor (e.g. notepad) can be used to create a data file. It is recommended to run them from the DOS prompt or from any Fortran compiler. The Absoft® Fortran compiler is a native 32-bit application designed for Microsoft® Windows 95/98, Windows NT™ and Windows XT. Appendix I shows steps in compiling and running the Absoft compiler. The executable codes of the Fortran codes are provided in relevant examples with an executable extension as *.EXE. The data file has the extension *.DAT, and the result file has the extension *.RES. The screen-handling software uses the ANSI.SYS device driver in the CONFIG.SYS file. Each screen-handling software uses a batch file that incorporates the ANSI.SYS device driver. The program can be run from DOS using C:\ prompt from the command line. For example, TWOPHASE.EXE in Chapter 4 is run as follows: C:\ >TWOPHASE.BAT (ENTER) A title is displayed and the user then presses any key from the PC console to continue. Once the screen is cleared, a list of eight options is displayed as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. OPEN CREATE SAVE CALCS PRT RES SAVE RES FINISH QUIT Open a pre-existing file Create a new data file Save the data file you just edited Start calculating Print the result file Save the result file Next problem? Exit to DOS TWOPHASE is user-friendly and the procedure in running the program is as follows: 1. Create a data file (option 2). Assign the value to any fitting type that is not included in the calculation. Press a return key or a downward arrow key to continue. 2. Calculate the input data (option 4). 3. Print the results onto a printer (option 5). The results are also viewed on the screen. 4. Quit the program by typing N (option 8) to return to DOS (Disk Operating System). 5. Press FINISH (option 7) before opening or creating a data file. Options 1, 3, 6 and 7 can be further used after the data file has been created. USING MICROSOFT EXCEL SPREADSHEET Start the Excel spreadsheet by double-clicking on the icon. To open a file name, click on “FILE” on the menu bar, then choose “Open    ”. To open an existing worksheet or file name from the folder, double-click on it. This will open the document (and will start the Excel spreadsheet as well if it was not already running). To print output, you can choose “Printer Setup    ” to specify a printer, “Page Setup    ” to specify margins, automatic scaling, etc., and “Print preview    ” to preview output. To quit the Excel spreadsheet and return to Windows, choose “File    ”, “Exit”. To exit Windows, repeat the same commands from the File Manager screen. xvii Chapter 0 RULES OF THUMB: SUMMARY CONVEYORS FOR PARTICULATE SOLIDS COMPRESSORS, FANS, BLOWERS AND VACUUM PUMPS 1. Fans are used to raise the pressure by about 3% [12 in. (30 cm) water], blowers raise to less than 2.75 barg (40 psig), and compressors to higher pressures, although the blower range is commonly included in the compressor range. 2. For vacuum pumps use the following: Reciprocating piston Type Rotary piston type Two lobe rotary type Steam jet ejectors down to 133.3 Pa (1 torr) down to 0.133 Pa (0.001 torr) down to 0.0133 Pa (0.0001 torr) 1 stage down to 13.3 k Pa (100 torr) 3 stage down to 133.3 Pa (1 torr) 5 stage down to 6.7 Pa (0.05 torr) 3. A three-stage ejector needs 100 kg steam/kg air to maintain a pressure of 133.3 Pa (1 torr). 4. In-leakage of air to evacuated equipment depends on the absolute pressure (torr) and the volume of the equipment, V in m3 (ft3 ), according to W = kV 2/3 kg/h (lb/h), with k = 098 (0.2) when P > 90 torr, k = 039 (0.08) when P is between 0.4 and 2.67 kPa (3 and 20 torr), and k = 012 (0.025) at p less than 133.3 Pa (1 torr). 5. Theoretical adiabatic horsepower THP = SCFM T1 8130a  P2 P1  a −1 where T1 is inlet temperature in Rankine, R =  F + 460 and a = k − 1/k k = Cp /Cv . Theoretical reversible adiabatic power = mz1 RT1  P2 /P1 a − 1/a Where T1 is inlet temperature, R = Gas Constant, z1 = compressibility factor, m = molar flow rate, a = k − 1/k and k = Cp /Cv . Values of R = 8314 J/mol K = 1987 Btu/lb mol  R = 07302 atm ft3 /lb mol  R. 6. Outlet temperature for reversible adiabatic process  T2 = T1 P2 P1 1. Screw conveyors are suited to transport of even sticky and abrasive solids up inclines of 20 or so. They are limited to distances of 3.81 m (150 ft) or so because of shaft torque strength. A 304.8 mm (12 in.) diameter conveyor can handle 283–8495 m3 /h 1000–3000 ft3 /h, at speeds ranging from 40 to 60 rpm. 2. Belt conveyors are for high capacity and long distances (a mile or more, but only several hundred feet in a plant), up inclines of 30 maximum. A 609.6-mm (24 in.) wide belt can carry 8495 m3 /h (3000 ft 3 /h) at a speed of 0.508 m/s (100 ft/min), but speeds up to 3.048 m/s (600 ft/min) are suited to some materials. Power consumption is relatively low. 3. Bucket elevators are suited to vertical transport of sticky and abrasive materials. With 508 × 508-mm (20 × 20-in.) buckets, capacity can reach 283 m3 /h (1000 ft3 /h) at a speed of 0.508 m/s (100 ft/min), but speeds up to 1.524 m/s (300 ft/min) are used. 4. Drag-type conveyors (Redler) are suited to short distances in any direction and are completely enclosed. Units range in size from 194 × 10−4 to 1226 × 10−4 m2 (3–19 in.2 ) and may travel from 0.15 m/s (30 ft/min) (fly ash) to 1.27 m/s (250 ft/min) (grains). Power requirements are high. 5. Pneumatic conveyors are for high capacity, short distance (122 m (400 ft)) transport simultaneously from several sources to several destinations. Either vacuum or low pressure 0.4–0.8 barg (6–12 psig) is used with a range of air velocities from 10.7 to 36.6 m/s (35–120 ft/s); depending on the material and pressure and air requirements, 003–02 m3 /m3 (1–7 ft3 /ft3 ) of solid is transferred. COOLING TOWERS 1. Water in contact with air under adiabatic conditions eventually cools to the wet bulb temperature. 2. In commercial units, 90% of saturation of the air is feasible. 3. Relative cooling tower size is sensitive to the difference between the exit and the wet bulb temperatures: T ,  F Relative volume a 7. To compress air from 37.8 C (100 F), k = 14, compression ratio = 3, theoretical power required = 62 hp/million ft3 /day, outlet temperature 152.2 C (306 F). 8. Exit temperature should not exceed 167–204 C (350–400 F); for diatomic gases (Cp /Cv = 14), this corresponds to a compression ratio of about 4. 9. Compression ratio should be about the same in each stage of a multistage unit, ratio = Pn /P1 1/n , with n stages. 10. Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors: 65% at compression ratio of 1.5, 75% at 2.0, and 80–85% at 3–6. 11. Efficiencies of large centrifugal compressors, 2.83–472 m3 /s (6000–100,000 acfm) at suction, are 76–78%. 12. Rotary compressors have efficiencies of 70%, except liquid liner type which have 50%. 5 24 15 1.0 25 0.55 4. Tower fill is of a highly open structure so as to minimize pressure drop, which is in standard practice a maximum of 497.6 Pa (2 in. of water). 5. Water circulation rate is 48.9–195.7 L/min m2 (1–4 gpm/ft2 ) and air rate is 6344–8784 kg/h m2 (1300–1800 lb/h ft2 ) or 1.52–2.03 m/s (300–400 ft/min). 6. Chimney-assisted natural draft towers are hyperboloidally shaped because they have greater strength for a given thickness; a tower 76.2 m (250 ft) high has concrete walls 127–152.4 mm (5–6 in.) thick. The enlarged cross section at the top aids in dispersion of exit humid air into the atmosphere. 7. Countercurrent-induced draft towers are the most common in process industries. They are able to cool water within 2 F of the wet bulb. 8. Evaporation losses are 1% of the circulation for every 10 F of cooling range. Windage or drift losses of mechanical draft towers are 0.1–0.3%. Blowdown of 2.5–3.0% of the circulation is necessary to prevent excessive salt buildup. xviii