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Tài liệu Human cognitive processing vyvyan evans, stéphanie pourcel new directions in cognitive linguistics john benjamins publishing company (2009)

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For three windy days in October 2005, nearly 180 cognitive linguists descended upon Brighton, on the South coast of England, for the UK's inaugural cognitive linguistics conference. The conference, held between October 23rd and the 25th was entitled New Directions in Cognitive Linguistics. The make-up of delegates who attended the conference was truly international in nature, coming from all over the globe, including both North and South America, Northern and Southern Africa, the Middle East, the Far East, Australia, and from Western, Central and Eastern Europe. The conference, held on the campus of the University of Sussex, was full of excitement, intellectual curiosity and good humour, which achieved an acme, of sorts, with a final gala dinner and karaoke next to Brighton's famous Royal Pavilion. The volume you hold in your hands represents a selection of peerreviewed papers, based, for the most part, on contributions from the conference. It captures some of the diversity and excitement of the ideas discussed and presented at the conference. In all cases, the papers contained here represent, in various ways, new directions in cognitive linguistics. Needless to say, the present volume would not have been possible without the participation and involvement of the delegates at the 2005 event. We gratefully acknowledge and thank all who attended and presented at the conference. In addition, we also wish to acknowledge the financial support of the British Academy, which, in part, made the conference possible.
New Directions in Cognitive Linguistics Human Cognitive Processing (HCP) Human Cognitiw Pro..::cssing is a bookseries presenting interdisciplinary research on the cog::-:.:::·.-.: structure and processing of language and its anchoring in the h:..:.:-::-:.2.:: cognitive or mental systems. Editors Marcelo Dascal Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr. Jan Nuyts Tel Aviv Uniwrs::-. ·_-:::\·crsity of California at Santa Cruz University of Antwerp Editorial Ad,iso~- Board Melissa F. B~-·.,·::~:-:-. .:.:-: Eric Pederson Eugene, OR Nijmeg.::1 Wallace C-..:.:·:: Santa 3=---:-':- =---:- ~ -= -~- Philir R. Cc,:-:::::-. Por::.:c...'. 0~ .-i.ntor:io Da~.~s:o Fran<;:ois Recanati Paris Sally Rice Edmonton, Alberta Benny Shanon lowa.C:-.-.:...;. Jerusalem :.lorton _-\nn Gernsbacher Lokendra Shastri :--radisor:. \q Berkeley, CA DaYid :.k:-\eill Paul Thagard Chicago. Il Waterloo, Ontario Volume24 New Directions in Cognitive Linguistics Edited by Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel New Directions in Cognitive Linguistics Edited by Vyvyan Evans Stephanie Pourcel Bangor University, UK John Benjarnins Publishing Company Amsterdam I Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences - Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI z39.48-l984. QC) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data New directions in cognitive linguistics I edited by Vyvyan Evans, Stephanie Pourcel. p. em. (Human Cognitive Processing, ISSN 1387-6724; v. 24) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Cognitive grammar. 2. Linguistics. I. Evans, Vyvyan. II. Pourcel, Stephanie. P16s.N48 2009 2009010214 415--dc22 ISBN 978 90 272 2378 4 (HB; ISBN 978 90 272 8944 5 (EB) alk. paper) © 2009 -John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Co.· P.O. Box 36224 · 1020 ME Amsterdam ·The Netherlands John Benjamins North America· P.O. Box 27519 · Philadelphia PA 19n8-osr9 · USA Table of contents Contributors IX Acknowledgements XI Introduction Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel Part I. Approaches to semantics: Theory and method Meaning as input: The instructional perspective Peter Harder 15 Semantic representation in LCCM Theory Vyvyan Evans 27 Behavioral profiles: A corpus-based approach to cognitive semantic analysis Stefan Th. Gries and Dagmar Divjak 57 Polysemy, syntax, and variation: A usage-based method for Cognitive Semantics Dylan Glynn 77 Part II. Approaches to metaphor and blending: Theory and method Solving the riddle of metaphor: A salience-based model for metaphorical interpretation in a discourse context Mimi Ziwei Huang 107 When is a linguistic metaphor a conceptual metaphor? Daniel Casasanto 127 Generalized integration networks Gilles Fauconnier 147 Genitives and proper names in constructional blends Barbara Dancygier 161 VI New Directions in Cognitive Linguistics Part III. Approaches to grammar: Theory and method What's (in) a construction? Complete inheritance vs. full-entry models Arne Zeschel \\'ords as constructions 201 Ewa Dqbrowska Constructions and constructional meaning 225 Ronald W Langacker Partonomic structures in syntax Edith A. Moravcsik Part IV. Language, embodiment and cognition: Theory and application Language as a biocultural niche and social institution Chris Sinha Understanding embodiment: Psychophysiological models in traditional medical systems 311 Magda Altman Get and the grasp schema: A new approach to conceptual modelling in image schema semantics 331 Paul Chilton ,\lotion scenarios in cognitive processes 371 Stephanie Pourcel Part V. Extensions and applications of cognitive linguistics Tm,·ard a social cognitive linguistics 395 1\'i//iam Croft Cognitive and linguistic factors in evaluating text quality: Global versus local? 421 Ruth A. Berman and Bracha Nir Reference points and dominions in narratives: A discourse level exploration of the reference point model of anaphora Sarah van Vliet 441 Table of contents vn The dream as blend in David Lynch's Mulholland Drive Johanna Rubba "I was in that room!": Conceptual integration of content and context in a writer's vs. a prosecutor's description of a murder Esther Pascual Index 499 517 Contributors Magda Altman University of KwaZulu- Natal Stefan Th. Gries University of California, Santa Barbara Ruth Berman University of Tel-Aviv Peter Harder University of Copenhagen Daniel Casasanto Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen Mimi Ziwei Huang University ofNorthumbria Paul Chilton University of Lancaster William Croft University of New Mexico Ewa Dqbrowska University of Sheffield Barbara Dancygier University of British Columbia Dagmar Divjak Science Foundation Flanders & University of Sheffield Vyvyan Evans Bangor University Gilles Fauconnier University of California, San Diego Dylan Glynn University of Lund Ronald W Langacker University of California, San Diego Edith Moravcsik University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Bracha Nir Haifa University Esther Pascual Groningen University Stephanie Pourcel Bangor University Johanna Rubba California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo Chris Sinha University of Portsmouth Sarah van Vliet VU University Amsterdam Arne Zeschel University of Southern Denmark Acknowledgements For three windy days in October 2005, nearly 180 cognitive linguists descended upon Brighton, on the South coast of England, for the UK's inaugural cognitive linguistics conference. The conference, held between October 23rd and the 25th was entitled New Directions in Cognitive Linguistics. The make-up of delegates who attended the conference was truly international in nature, coming from all over the globe, including both North and South America, Northern and Southern Africa, the Middle East, the Far East, Australia, and from Western, Central and Eastern Europe. The conference, held on the campus of the University of Sussex, was full of excitement, intellectual curiosity and good humour, which achieved an acme, of sorts, with a final gala dinner and karaoke next to Brighton's famous Royal Pavilion. The volume you hold in your hands represents a selection of peerreviewed papers, based, for the most part, on contributions from the conference. It captures some of the diversity and excitement of the ideas discussed and presented at the conference. In all cases, the papers contained here represent, in various ways, new directions in cognitive linguistics. Needless to say, the present volume would not have been possible without the participation and involvement of the delegates at the 2005 event. We gratefully acknowledge and thank all who attended and presented at the conference. In addition, we also wish to acknowledge the financial support of the British Academy, which, in part, made the conference possible. We also owe a significant debt of thanks to the contributors of the present volume. A collection of this sort involves a mammoth collective effort of time, industry, and goodwill. We are extremely grateful to all the contributors for their patience and hard-work in producing such a broad range of fine contributions, and for their generosity in being willing to share the results of their research efforts. In addition, we are indebted to all the scholars who graciously assisted in the review, quality-control and selection process, as well as to our local proof-reader, Eileen Hall. Finally, we wish to acknowledge the support of our publisher John Benjamins, particularly Seline Benjamins, Jan-Reijer Groesbeek, Kees Vaes and Hanneke Bruintjes, in facilitating the publication of this volume. Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel Bangor, October 2008 Introduction Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel Since the publication of the seminal Metaphors We Live By, in 1980, cognitive linguistics has emerged as one of the most innovative and exciting paradigms in the interdisciplinary project known as cognitive science (see Evans and Green 2006 for a comprehensive overview of cognitive linguistics). In nearly three decades, the field has established itself at the forefront of work on grammar, linguistic semantics and aspects of conceptual structure and mental representation, to name but a few exemplars. The field also represents one of the fastest growing schools in linguistics and today boasts a sophisticated and well-established international infrastructure. In addition to a series of large-scale biennial conferences, organised under the auspices of the International Cognitive Linguistics Association (ICLA), cognitive linguistics features a significant number of national cognitive linguistics associations, affiliated to ICLA. One symptom of the success of cognitive linguistics has been its institutionalisation, with a plethora of conferences and associations developed to enshrine its assumptions, methodologies and main theoretical paradigms. Another is the by now voluminous literature, including a detailed and sophisticated body of work in the main theoretical paradigms which populate cognitive linguistics, as well as a range of textbooks (e.g. Croft and Cruse 2004; Evans and Green 2006; Lee 2001; Ungerer and Schmid 2006), works of reference (Geeraerts and Cuyckens 2007; Evans et al. 2007), and so on, with a wide-ranging and complex technical vocabulary (see Evans 2007 for an overview). New directions The key objective of this 'New Directions' volume is to further contribute to this rich body of literature by firstly, taking stock of what cognitive linguistics, as an enterprise, has achieved, and secondly, by examining new avenues of investigation and exploration, new methods, new analytical means, and new ideas. The volume provides a venue for the survey of both the state of the art and new directions in cognitive linguistics. In particular, the volume surveys recent empirical and methodological trends, as well as applications of cognitive linguistics to a range of issues in neighbouring and cognate disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, applied linguistics, literary studies, and more. The papers in this volume collectively review a range of established phenomena and theories in cognitive linguistics, including approaches to figurative language, lexicalisation 2 Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel patterns, meaning construction, cross-linguistic variation, grammar, and the relationship between language, conceptual structure and experience. The volume also examines and charts new directions in these areas. In addition, the volume showcases a representative selection of both the state of the art and the new in terms of methodological and empirical approaches deployed in cognitive linguistics. A further contribution made in the volume is the exploration of new areas of research, for example, cognitive sociolinguistics, and the e\ olutionary basis of language, as well as the exploration and presentation of recent trends in the application of cognitive linguistics to the analysis of text, narrative, discourse, dream, and film, as represented, in particular, in the final section of the book. In essence, this volume is a testament to the wide-ranging research profile that the cogniti\·e linguistics enterprise has developed since its inception, as well as to recent innO\·ations. It offers both a representative sample of current practice and areas of enquiry in cognitive linguistics, as well as new trends, which seek to explore previously uncharted realms of investigation, both within the field and beyond its traditional boundaries. An overview of the volume The volume is divided into five sections. The first four treat traditional areas of investigation and theory in cognitive linguistics: Approaches to semantics, Approaches to metaphor and blending, Approaches to grammar, and Language, embodiment and cognition. The fifth section deals with Extensions and applications of cognitive linguistics. Below we preview each of the sections and the chapters contained. I. Approaches to semantics: Theory and method This section of the book addresses theoretical, methodological and empirical issues in cognitive semantics. The first chapter, by Peter Harder, Meaning as input: The instructional perspective, is primarily concerned with the risk of 'usage fundamentalism' in cognitive linguistics. This concerns the assumption that only actual utterances in fact exist. According to Harder, this position stands in opposition to the classical error of situating the truth about language at the level of abstract ideal objects. In particular, Harder is concerned as to the way in which the term 'meaning' is being deployed in recent work in cognitive linguistics (cf. e.g. Croft 2000; Evans 2006, this volume), and the dissociation between 'meaning' on one hand and 'mental representation' (i.e. knowledge of language) on the other. Harder argues that if meaning continues to be equated with language use (rather than knowledge oflanguage), and this definition becomes accepted, it is no longer obvious exactly what constitutes the content side (semantic pole) of a linguistic unit. In order to remedy this, Harder presents an approach focused on a tripartition of the canonical language event into input, processing and output. The idea is that in order to choose a specific linguistic item competently, one must know what 'input content' it can add to the message. In order to actually succeed in making a contribution, the linguistic item has to be processed by the addressee, resulting in an understanding that constitutes the 'output' (as an Introduction actual usage event). Knowing a language, he argues, consists of knowing the input properties of the forms selected by the language producer - whereas actual outputs can never be known for certain in advance. Harder outlines the basic features of such an 'instructional' perspective illustrating how this may serve a purpose in the current usage-oriented as well as socially-oriented trend in cognitive linguistics. The second chapter in section I, by Vyvyan Evans, is entitled Semantic representation in LCCM Theory. This paper focuses on the nature of semantic representation from the perspective of the Theory of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models, also known as LCCM Theory (Evans 2006, To appear). LCCM Theory takes its name from the two central theoretical constructs adopted in the theory: the lexical concept and the cognitive model. The lexical concept represents the means adopted in LCCM Theory of modelling units of semantic structure. In contrast, a cognitive model is a component of conceptual knowledge, which is to say, non-linguistic knowledge. Hence, the cognitive model models units of conceptual structure. LCCM Theory assumes that lexical concepts and cognitive models are types of knowledge belonging to two distinct representational systems, which have distinct and divergent functions. These are the linguistic system, which encodes semantic structure, and the conceptual system which encodes conceptual structure. Evans argues that the linguistic system evolved, in part, by facilitating more effective control of the extant representations in the conceptual system - representations which evolved for action and perception, i.e. for non-linguistic purposes. In essence, the central argument of the paper is that the semantic representations in the linguistic and conceptual systems interact for purposes oflinguistically-mediated communication. Together, the lexical concept and the cognitive model form a level of representation that the author refers to as semantic representation. The paper describes the nature of the lexical concept, the nature of the cognitive model, and the nature of the interaction between the two. While the first two chapters were more theoretically-oriented, the final two chapters in part I are more concerned with method. The first of these, by Stefan Th. Gries and Dagmar Divjak is entitled: Behavioral profiles: A corpus-based approach to cognitive semantic analysis. One of the areas which has most strongly supported the emergence of cognitive linguistics as a new research paradigm is that oflexical semantics. Early work, in particular on prepositions, introduced the notions of prototypes, network representations and radial categories into linguistics. These innovations of cognitive-linguistic lexical semantic analysis were later used for analysing constructional elements. While this work has provided a wealth of insights, the approach - in particular the then widely used network representations of word senses - was criticised for a variety of methodological and conceptual shortcomings. It is probably fair to say that, in spite of a growing recognition of such shortcomings, cognitive linguistics is still far from having resolved all of its issues. In response, Gries and Divjak survey a variety of quantitative, corpus-based methods that can be used to pursue cognitively-inspired lexical semantic analyses. After a brief discussion of the main contributions to the field, Gries and Divjak propose quantitative techniques for addressing some of the long-standing problems in the domains of polysemy and near synonymy. In so doing, they build on previously unrelated proposals from corpus linguistics in general and corpus-based lexicography in particular. They illustrate their proposal on the basis of two case studies: the first presents selected results from a study on 3 4 Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel the senses of a highly polysemous English verb run; the second applies their methodology to nine near synonymous Russian verbs meaning try. The semantic issues investigated in the case studies include prototype identification, the (degree of) sense distinctness, and the structure of the hypothesised network. The fourth and final chapter in section I, by Dylan Glynn, is entitled: Polysemy, syntax, and variation. A usage-based method for cognitive semantics. In this chapter, Glynn addresses issues in the description of polysemy. He argues that results derived from the Lexical Network Model (Lakoff 1987; Cuyckens 1995) have been demonstrated to be ad hoc (Sandra and Rice 1995; Tyler and Evans 2001). He suggests that while the Principled Polysemy framework (Evans 2005) improves on this model with a more constrained analytical apparatus, a radically different yet complementary model is, nevertheless, required. Accordingly, Glynn presents a usage-based quantitative and multifactorial method that adheres to the theoretical tenets of cognitive linguistics (Langacker 1987; Lakoff 1987) and draws from existing methodologies in the study of near-synonymy (Geeraerts et al. 1994; Fischer 2000; and Gries 2003). The method uses feature analysis of different variables and employs correspondence analysis to reveal feature association. Glynn argues that the resulting clusters of features represent polysemic structure. In sum, the four papers in this section represent an overview of some of the recent theoretical controversies in the arena of cognitive approaches to semantics, and new directions, both theoretical and methodological, which attempt to resolve some of these outstanding issues. II. Approaches to metaphor and blending: Theory and method Section II of the book is concerned with the two phenomena known as metaphor, and variously conceptual integration or blending. The first two chapters deal with metaphor, while the second two are concerned with blending. The chapters collectively address both theoretical and methodological issues, as well as examine these phenomena in new ways and contexts, The first chapter, by Mimi Ziwei Huang, is entitled: Solving the riddle of metaphor: A salience-based model for metaphorical interpretation in a discourse context. The purpose of this chapter is to examine how metaphor is interpreted in a discourse context. Huang employs the Graded Salience Hypothesis (Giora 1997) in order to do so. She argues that three salient factors are decisive in metaphorical interpretation. The first is the graded salient lexical meaning of a word or an expression, together with its semantic fields and scenarios. The second is the metaphorical mapping process contributed to by the metaphorical source, target, co-text and context. The third salient factor is the intended metaphorical meaning in a given context. Huang illustrates these three salient factors by virtue of an analytical account of a short story taken from The Devils Larder (Crace 2002). The second chapter in this section, by Daniel Casasanto, is entitled: When is a linguistic metaphor a conceptual metaphor? In his chapter, Casasanto is concerned with establishing whether conceptual metaphors have psychological reality. According to Conceptual Metaphor Theory, metaphors are fundamentally conceptual structures - not linguistic structures (Lakoff 1993). Yet, the majority of evidence for conceptual metaphors comes Introduction from analysis of linguistic metaphors. Casasanto asks whether we can necessarily infer how people think from the way they talk. This chapter illustrates some dangers of building a theory of concepts principally upon linguistic data. The chapter briefly reviews experimental work testing our understanding of the abstract domain of time, and then presents experiments testing the metaphorical basis of similarity. Three experiments tested the relationship between similarity and spatial proximity predicted by Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999). In all experiments similarity ratings for pairs of words or pictures varied as a function of how far apart stimuli appeared on the computer screen, but the effect of distance on similarity differed depending on the type of judgments participants made. Stimuli presented closer together were rated more similar during 'conceptual' judgments of abstract entities or unseen object properties, consistent with predictions based on linguistic metaphors. By contrast, stimuli presented closer together were rated less similar during 'perceptual' judgments of visual appearance, contrary to the conceptual metaphor SIMILARITY IS PROXIMITY. Casasanto argues that these results underscore the importance of testing Conceptual Metaphor Theory experimentally, and suggest that linguistic metaphors should be treated as a source of hypotheses about conceptual structure- hypotheses that require both linguistic and extra-linguistic evaluation. The third chapter in section II, by Gilles Fauconnier, is entitled: Generalized Integration Networks, and deals with Blending or conceptual integration. Fauconnier argues that the systematic study of integration as a cognitive operation made many useful descriptive distinctions possible. So, within the data referred to as "blends", there are many different products depending on the types of inputs, the links between them, the choices for projection, and so forth. Corresponding types of blends have been distinguished, or rather aligned on a graded continuum, going from simplex blends to mirror blends to single-scope and double-scope blends, all dividable into further subcategories (Fauconnier and Turner 2002). While, according to Fauconnier, the description and classification of this new data is largely uncontroversial and widely viewed as innovative and useful, a more significant project is to explore the role of integration and compression in meaning construction beyond these very visible blends. Accordingly, in his chapter, Fauconnier, points out some useful generalisations that emerge from the study of integration, along with some of the pervasive fallacies that stand in the way of making such generalisations. Through the analysis of attested data, he discusses the notion of "generalized integration networks" and how they allow the construction of a multiplicity of surface products in human thought and action. Like the chapter by Fauconnier, the fourth and final chapter in section II also addresses blending. The contribution by Barbara Dancygier entitled: Genitives and proper names in constructional blends, presents a blending analysis of genitives, thereby providing a theoretical and methodological illustration of the role of blending in language as well as illustrating the utility of conceptual integration as a theoretical construct. According to Dancygier, the genitive ( 's) form in English has long been seen as semantically puzzling. It plays a special role as the only case in English which is morphologically marked on nouns, and displays a very broad array of meanings and uses (Nikiforidou 1991; Taylor 1996; Rosenbach 2002). The recent view of the genitive is that it is a means of establishing a reference point (Langacker 1991; Taylor 1996) for the construct represented by the 5 6 Vyvyan Evans and Stephanie Pourcel noun being modified. In her chapter, Dancygier describes a somewhat more specific use of the genitive, which emerges as the specific contribution of the genitive to two syntactic constructions, both of which can be represented as conceptual integration networks. Dancygier discusses the contribution of the genitive to constructional meaning in terms of two theoretical constructs: frame metonymy and constructional compositionality. These notions are illustrated by virtue of an analysis of two constructions. The first Dancygier terms the GEN-XYZ construction, exemplified by the sentence Too much of the world, Cambodia has become "Vietnam's Vietnam." The second construction which relies on a similar use of the genitive is One person's X is another person's Y, represented in One person's trash is another person's treasure. III. Approaches to grammar: Theory and method Section III of the book is concerned with cognitive linguistic approaches to grammar, as in previous sections addressing and assessing recent trends and perspectives, both theoretically and methodologically, and charting new issues and avenues for exploration. The section opens with the chapter from Arne Zeschel entitled: What's (in) a construction? Complete inheritance vs. full-entry models. Zeschel's chapter contrasts the two most widely assumed criteria for constructional status that have been proposed in the Construction Grammar literature. Departing from a corpus study of a particular 'schematic idiom' of English, the chapter presents both theoretical and empirical arguments for a usage-based interpretation of the term grammatical construction that accords unit status to linguistic elements that are sufficiently entrenched. Zeschel argues that the criterion of non-predictability that is often employed in computational approaches is inappropriate for accommodating the inherently flexible and creative aspects of human problem solving that are exhibited by naturally occurring language. The second chapter in section III also takes up the issue of the nature and status of a construction. In her chapter entitled: Words as Constructions, Ewa D - Xem thêm -

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