Tài liệu A study on the semantic and lexicogrammatical features of the short story mr. know all by w. somerset maugham a systemic functional analysis

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES ************ NGUYỄN THI ̣ BÍ CH LIÊN A STUDY ON THE SEMANTIC AND LEXICOGRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF THE SHORT STORY MR KNOW ALL BY W. SOMERSET MAUGHAM: A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ CÁC ĐẶC ĐIỂM NGỮ NGHĨA VÀ NGỮ PHÁP TỪ VỰNG TRONG TRUYỆN NGẮN ÔNG BIẾT TUỐT CỦA NHÀ VĂN W.SOMERSET MAUGHAM. PHÂN TÍ CH THEO QUAN ĐIỂM CHỨC NĂNG HỆ THỐNG M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Linguistics Code: 60220201 HANOI – 2016 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES ************ NGUYỄN THI ̣ BÍ CH LIÊN A STUDY ON THE SEMANTIC AND LEXICOGRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF THE SHORT STORY MR KNOW ALL BY W. SOMERSET MAUGHAM: A SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ CÁC ĐẶC ĐIỂM NGỮ NGHĨA VÀ NGỮ PHÁP TỪ VỰNG TRONG TRUYỆN NGẮN ÔNG BIẾT TUỐT CỦA NHÀ VĂN W.SOMERSET MAUGHAM. PHÂN TÍ CH THEO QUAN ĐIỂM CHỨC NĂNG HỆ THỐNG M.A. MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Linguistics Code: 60220201 Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân HANOI - 2016 CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT I hereby certify that the thesis entitled A study on the semantic and lexicogrammartical features of the short story Mr. Know All by Somerset Maugham: A systemic functional analysis is the result of my own research for the Degree of Master of Art at University of Language and International Studies, Ha Noi National University, and the thesis has not been submitted for any degree at any other university or tertiary institution. Hanoi, 2016 Nguyễn Thi Bi ̣ ́ch Liên i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like first to express my deep gratitude to Prof. Dr. Hoàng Văn Vân, my supervisor, for his untiring and benevolent assistance granted to me throughout the process of my writing. His practical advice, useful suggestions and critical feedback have been generous and beneficial, without which I would not have been able to complete this thesis. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to my whole-hearted colleagues and friends for their help and kind encouragement during the research period. My indebtedness is to my beloved family members whose help and encouragements contributed greatly to the completion of my study. Hanoi,2016 Nguyễn Thi Bi ̣ ́ch Liên ii ABSTRACT The shortcoming in most textual analyses is their dependence on contestable and value judgments of literary critics. However, such prescriptive commentary is not instrumental in exploring multiple meanings encoded in grammar. This necessitates a linguistic analysis of texts, which demonstrates how and why a text gets to be the way it is as well as the reader interprets it in the particular way. For this reason, the functional text analysis undertaken in this study aims to investigate how and why the text is written. It is performed with regard to Halliday‟s Functional Grammar framework. The linguistic data were analyzed by using the quantitative and qualitative methods. Consequently, how interpersonal relationships are created within texts, how information is organized in texts and how the ideological positions of writers are implanted in texts were shown and interpreted. It is presented that the predominance of the material process reflects the main purpose of the discourse. And most of the processes are presented in the past tense and in declarative mood which serves effectively the purpose of the author. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CANDIDATE‟STATEMENT ................................................................................................ i CKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................... iv PART I: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER1:GENER LINTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1 1.1. Rationale of the study ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Aims of the study and research questions ...................................................................... 2 1.3. Scope of the study .......................................................................................................... 3 1.4. Methods of the study....................................................................................................... 3 1.5. Design of the study ........................................................................................................ 3 PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................... 5 2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 5 2.2. Systemic Functional Linguistics .................................................................................... 6 2.2.1. Strata of the systemic functional model .............................................................. 7 2.2.2. Metafunctions ...................................................................................................... 8 2.3. The ideational meaning ................................................................................................... 9 2.3.1. Process types ................................................................................................. 10 2.3.1.1. Material process ......................................................................................... 10 2.3.1.2. Mental processes ........................................................................................ 10 2.3.1.3. Relational processes ................................................................................... 11 2.3.1.4. Behavioral processes ................................................................................. 12 2.3.1.5. Verbal processes ....................................................................................... 12 2.3.1.6. Existential processes .................................................................................. 13 2.3.2. Circumstances ............................................................................................... 13 2.4. The interpersonal meaning............................................................................................ 14 2.4.1. Constituents of the Mood ................................................................................... 15 2.4.2. Residue ............................................................................................................... 16 2.4.3. Mood types ........................................................................................................ 16 2.4.3.1. Indicative mood ......................................................................................... 17 iv 2.4.3.2. Imperative mood ...................................................................................... 18 2.5. The textual meaning...................................................................................................... 18 2.5.1. Types of theme .................................................................................................. 19 2.5.1.1. Ideational or Topical theme ..................................................................... 19 2.5.1.2. Textual theme .......................................................................................... 20 2.5.1.3. Interpersonal theme.................................................................................. 20 2.5.2. Theme and mood ............................................................................................... 20 2.5.2.1. Theme in interrogatives ............................................................................ 21 2.5.2.2. Theme in imperatives ............................................................................... 21 2.5.2.3. Theme in declaratives .............................................................................. 21 2.5.2.4. Theme in exclaimatives ........................................................................... 22 2.6. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 3: THE SEMANTIC AND LEXICOGRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF THE SHORT STORY MR. KNOW ALL ..................................................................................... 23 3.1. W. Somerset Maugham and the story Mr. Know All .................................................. 23 3.2. The analysis of the story in terms of clause and clause complex ................................. 24 3.3. The analysis of the story in terms of transitivity ......................................................... 25 3.4. The analysis of the story in terms of mood .................................................................. 39 3.5. The analysis of the story in terms of theme ................................................................. 41 3.6. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 43 PART III: CONCLUSION CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 44 4.1. Recapitulation ............................................................................................................... 44 4.2. Implications of the study.............................................................................................. 45 4.3. Suggestions for further study ....................................................................................... 45 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 46 APPENDIX 1: Clause and clause complex ............................................................................ I APPENDIX 2: The transitivity pattern ............................................................................... IX APPENDIX 3: The mood pattern ......................................................................................XC APPENDIX 4: The theme pattern ....................................................................................... C v PART I: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1. Rationale of the study Since its birth in early 18th century, linguistics has witnessed a great change in the development of various approaches to grammar study such as Chomsky‟s transformational generative grammar, Bloomfield‟s immediate constituent grammar. Systemic functional grammar, among those, which was developed by celebrities in linguistics such as Halliday, Hassan, Morley, Bloor, can be seen as the most useful tool to satisfy human‟s desire to explore the language‟s nature. As Thompson (1996:6) states functional grammar is “a full analysis of sentence in both form and meaning as well as their relationship”. Compared with traditional grammar, which considered grammar as “a set of rules which specify all the possible grammatical structures of the language where grammatical and ungrammatical sentences are distinguished clearly” (Lock, 1996:1), functional grammar “is a way of looking at language in terms of how grammar is used” (Martin et al, 1997). In more details, functional grammar concerns with the grammatical patterns and lexical items used in text, as well as choices of those items, focusing on “the development of grammatical systems as a means for people to interact with each other” (Martin et al., 1997:1). In Vietnam, there also have valuable studies of grammarians relating to functional grammar, among which there are Cao Xuân Hạo (1991) with Tiếng Việt: Sơ thảo ngữ pháp chức năng, Hoàng Văn Vân (2005) with Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú tiếng Việt: Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống. Thanks to all these scholars, language is seen to be “closer to life”. According to Halliday, a functional grammar was designed to study the wording and interpret the wording by reference to what it means in order to “make it possible to say sensible and useful things about any text” (Halliday, 1994). In detail, it is particularly helpful for explaining how language is selected and organized in particular ways for particular socio-cultural purposes. 1 Yet, “traditional approaches to the study of literary texts model text analysis as an interpretive activity”, where “students learn to read a text and try to argue about what meanings they think the writer was making in the text” (Eggins, 2000: 309). “From a systemic perspective”, text analysis is, however, “not an interpretive but an explanatory activity” (Eggins, 2000: 309). In fact, “the linguistic analysis of text is not an interpretation of that text; it is an explanation” – an explanation of both “WHAT” and “HOW” “a text means” (Eggins, 2000: 309; Halliday & Hasan, 1985: 327). In this way, students will become “effective readers”, who can “see the constructedness of the text and of the reading position” imposed upon them by the writer (Kress, 1990: 40). As a teacher of English, I am deeply interested in developing both language proficiency and structural accuracy for my students. That is the reason why I have been deeply concerned with systemic functional grammar and my absorption in it, I believe, will help me to apply the theory teaching English to my students more effectively. As shown in the title A study on the semantic and lexicogrammatical features of the short story Mr. Know All by W. Somerset Maugham: A systemic functional analysis, there are some main reasons for my choice of the topic. Firstly, as a language teacher, what I am supposed to do is to use and teach English correctly and appropriately. In order to achieve this goal, analyzing texts to understand their meaning is quite necessary. Secondly, understanding what a text is through analyzing, it will certainly help us a great deal in our teaching as stated by Halliday and Hasan (1985). That is reason why I choose to explore the semantic and lexicogrammatical features of Mr. Know All by Somerset Maugham. 1.2. Aim of the study and research questions The overarching aim of the study is to investigate how transitivity, mood and theme are employed in the story Mr. Know All by W. Somerset Maugham to convey experiential, interpersonal and textual meanings. To achieve this aim, the following research question are raised for exploration: 2 How are transitivity, mood and theme employed in the story Mr. Know All by Somerset Maugham to reveal the experiential, interpersonal and textual meaning ? 1.3. Scope of the study Within the framework of a minor thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Linguistics, the primary focus of this study will be on investigating semantic and lexicogrammatical features of the story; they are the transitivity pattern, the mood and modality patterns, and the thematic pattern. The text used as data for the study is a short story entitled Mr. Know All by W. Somerset Maugham. 1.4. Methods of the study To achieve the aim as stated above, the study will use two main methods: qualitative and quantitative methods. Quantitative method is used for literature review, re-examining the systemic functional grammar framework, analysing the data for results, and discussing research results. Quantitative method is concerned with calculating the data and concerting it into percentages for discussion and cocnclusion. The analyses of the clauses in terms of transitivity, mood and theme are based on Halliday‟s systemic functional grammar framework. 1.5. Design of the study The study is designed in three main parts: Part I – Introduction Chapter 1 – General introduction presents rationale for the study, aim of the study, scope of the study, method of the study and design of the study. Part II – Development – is the main part of the study which is organized around two chapters: Chapter 2: Theoretical backgrounds – provides the theoretical framework of the study. Its focus is on introducing important concepts of systemic functional linguistics relevant to the topic of the study and a brief introduction to the author and the story Mr. Know All. 3 Chapter 3: Data analysis – analyses the semantic and lexicogrammatical features of the story Mr. Know All to see how transitivity, mood & modality, and theme are patterned in the story and provides comments based on these findings. Part III – Chapter 4 - Conclusion – summarizes what has been studied; provides some implications for teaching and learning English; and makes some suggestions for further research. 4 PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL BACKGOUND 2.1. Introduction It is not the aim of this chapter to present a comprehensive account of systemic functional linguistics; such an account is now widely available: Halliday (1992, 1996); Matthiessen (1995); Halliday & Martin (1981, 1993); Halliday & Hasan (1985); Berry (1975, 1977), Hasan, Cloran & Butt (1996); Hoang Van Van (2012) and many others. In this chapter, I will draw attention to only those features of the model which appear directly relevant to a grammatical study of this kind. To make the task manageable, the review will follow Hoang Van Van (2012) by organizing it around two major headings: semantics (the stratum of meaning) and lexicogrammar (the stratum of wording): metafunctional resonance. Semantics is the highest stratum within language; it refers to the systems of meaning in a language, for example, how sentences relate to the real world of people, actions, places and so on. Lexicogrammar is a term used in systemic functional linguistics to emphasize the interdependence of and continuity between vocabulary (lexis) and syntax (grammar). According to systemic functional theory, lexicogrammar is diversified into a metafunctional spectrum, extended in delicacy from grammar to lexis, and ordered into a series of ranked units" (Halliday, 2014). As the upper of the two content strata within language, semantics is the interface between context and lexicogrammar as presented in the diagram below. Ideational meaning Interpersonal meaning Semantics Lexico-grammatical 5 Textual meaning From the point of view of analysis, the mapping is interpreted as decoding lexicogrammatical structure to recover the speaker‟s meaning. Semantics transforms experience and interpersonal relationships into linguistic meaning, and lexicogrammar transforms this meaning into words, adopting the speaker‟s perspective. In other words, a hearer recovers the speaker‟s meanings by interpreting the choices of lexical items, and the ways in which these are put together (the grammatical structure). Within the scope of my study, this chapter will explore some basic concepts that are relevant to the thesis‟s topic: there are transitivity, mood and theme. But before looking at them in some detail, it is necessary to provide a brief introduction to systemic functional linguistics. 2.2. Systemic functional linguistics Systemic functional linguistics is a theory about language as a resource for making meaning based on a context of culture. It is developed by Michael Halliday, a professor of linguistics at the University of Sydney, Australia. The theory is based on Firth‟s system- structure theory (Halliday, 1985; Hoang Van Van, 2012). Beginning in 1950s, formal grammar, which was developed by Noam Chomsky and his followers, is concerned with the description of the structure of individual sentences. These linguists intend to explain the language structure in the way it is. At the same time, a set of rules for grammatically correct or incorrect usage are established as the guide for language users. In other words, whether a sentence or an utterance is said to be wrong or right is due to its obedience to the laws of grammar. Unlike formal linguists, functional linguists have generally dedicated themselves to addressing practical concerns of the application of grammar as well as relating grammar to its function within society. Specifically, Halliday (1994) views language not as a system of rules but as “a system of meaning”. Halliday approaches language not from within the internal working of the linguistic system, but primarily from outside. He begins with the question: Why is language structured in the way it is and not in some other way? And his answer is: because it reflects the functions which language is required to serve as a mean of 6 social communication. In other words, it shows how people use language to make meaning in order to navigate their social interactions on their lives. That is, the reason why systemic functional linguistics takes language to its functions through meaning, not just formation (cf. Eggins, 1994; Martin, 1985; Lock, 1996). Systemic functional linguistics has two characteristics: systemic and functional. It is systemic because it is based on systemic theory, which emphasizes meaning as the fundamental element in analyzing language. Halliday (1994) states “systemic theory is theory of meaning as a choice, by which a language or any other semiotic system is interpreted as networks of interlocking options” (Halliday, 1985). Functionally, systemic functional linguistics is designed to explore how language is formed. “It is functional in the sense that it is designed to account for how language is used” (Halliday, 1985) which is represented in three metafunctions: experiential- textual – interpersonal. 2.2.1. Strata of the systemic functional model The model below is based on Halliday (1978 and elsewhere), Hasan (1993, 1995, 1996; Hasan & Perrett (1994); Teich (1999) and Hoang Van Van (2012) in interpreting language as consisting of four strata, which are termed: context – semantics – lexicogrammar and phonology. Figure 1 - Four strata of systemic functional model According to the model, phonology refers to the system of sounding; lexicogrammar refers to the system of wording; semantics refers to the system of meaning in a language and context refers to the social system. 7 Also according to the model, each stratum can be further divided into functional components or functions. The ideational, interpersonal and textual functions of language are considered in the semantic stratum. Here, ideational meaning refers to the way one uses representational tools to compose the idea. In the context stratum for example, functional components are concerned with field (what is going on in the communicative event), tenor (the social roles and relationships involved) and mode (the channel in which communication takes place and the medium for communication). There are many other components relating to systemic functional linguistics. However, in this study, I will draw attention to only those features of the model which appear directly relevant to my study. Therefore, I will focus on exploring two strata: semantics and lexicogrammar to see what they are and how lexicogrammar resonates semantics. In systemic functional linguistics, clause rather than sentence is the unit of analysis. In systemic theory, a clause is a unit in which the meanings of three different kinds are combined. Three distinct structures, each expressing one kind of semantic organization, are mapped onto one another to produce a single wording. These semantic structures are referred to as meta-functions. 2.2.2.Metafunctions: Modes of meaning In order to account for this meaning-making potential of language, Halliday (1994) proposes three metafunctions at a semantical level:  Experiential – “construing a model of experience”  Interpersonal – “enacting social relationships”  Textual – “creating relevance to context” (Halliday, 1994) The experiential meaning construes our experience of the world around us and inside us. It‟s expressed through the system of transitivity which consists of six types of process: material, behavioural, mental, verbal, relational, and existential. A clause is analyzed into Process, Participant and Circumstance. 8 o The interpersonal meaning enacts our social roles and relations. It‟s expressed through the mood system. A clause is analysed into Subject, Finite, Predicator, Complement, and Adjunct. o The textual meaning presents the meanings construed and enacted as a flow of information as message. It is expressed through the thematic system. A clause is analysed into Theme and Rheme. The Theme is the departure of the message and the Rheme is what the Theme is about. Below is an example taken from Matthiessen & Bateman (1991); see also Halliday (1994: 371). Figure 2: Metafunctional layering The following parts are going to briefly summarize the main points of each meaning. 2.3. The ideational meaning The ideational meaning is the function for construing human experience (Alice, Martin, Christian, 2005: 26). It relates to meaning about phenomena; about how we represent experience in language. Meaning of this kind are most certainly influenced by the field of discourse (specify what is going on with reference to what), hence it investigates about things, about what they are or do and also the circumstance surrounding this happening and doing. This meaning is realized through wording by Transitivity system. According to Suzanne (1994:229), in analyzing transitivity system, it is concerned with describing three aspects of the clause: Process, Participants and Circumstances. In transitivity system processes are the central while the Participants and Circumstances are incumbent upon the processes. There are six different types of processes identified by Halliday (1985): 9 Material, Mental, Verbal, Behavioral, Relational, and Existential. Each of which will be presented in 2.3.1 below. 2.3.1. Process types 2.3.1.1. Material process Material process is process of “doing”, usually physical and tangible actions. They express the notion that some entity “does” something which may be done “to” some other entity. These processes can be proved by asking: what did X do? or What did X do to Y?. The „doer‟ of the action is called Actor. The one that is affected by the action is called Goal. Any material process has an actor, even though the actor may not be mentioned in the clause. The actor may be elliptical in the case of passive clauses. For example: He Goal was hit Process: material on his head Circumstance In some material processes, there exists a third participant called Beneficiary. The Beneficiary is either Recipient or Client. The Recipient is one that goods are given to. The Client is one that services are done for. For example: I will give Actor Process: Material you my book. Beneficiary: Recipient Goal I will do it for you. Actor Process: material Goal Beneficiary: Client 2.3.1.2. Mental process Mental process is the process of feeling, thinking and seeing (Halliday, 1994; Halliday, 2012). Unlike material process which belongs to the physical world, mental process usually reflects the world of consciousnes. It involves four main subtypes: cognitive (thinking, knowing, understanding, realizing etc.), perceptive (hearing, sensing, feeling etc.), affective (loving, hating, adoring, enjoying etc.), and desiderative (wanting, desiring, wishing etc.). In this type of process, the subject is labeled Senser (who experiences the process) and the complement is labeled phenomenon (what is experienced). For example: 10 The boy loved the girl. Senser Process: mental (affection) phenomenon We should be aware that the Sener must be human or at least animate creature (except in metaphorical uses) since only animate beings (human and animals) can think or feel. Phenomenon may be animate or inanimate. 2.3.1.3. Relational process Relational process is the process of being, having and being at. According to Halliday (1994), there are three main types of relational process which are named:  intensive „X is A‟ (establishes a relationship of sameness between two entities)  Circumstantial „X is at A‟ (defines the entity in terms of location, time, manner)  possessive „X has A‟ (indicates that one entity owns another) Each of these comes in two distinct modes:  attributive (A is an attribute of X)  identifying (A is the identity of X). Halliday offers the principal types of relational process as follows: Attributive The leader is Tom. Tom is the leader. Sarah is wise. Intensive Circumstantial The fair is on a Tuesday. Peter has a piano. Possessive Table 1: Identifying Tomorrow is the 10th. The 10th is tomorrow. The piano is Peter‟s. Peter‟s is the piano. The principal types of relational process In the attributive mode, one participant is known as Carrier and the quality to represent the possessive relation of carrier is referred to as Attribute, which is usually realized by an adjective or an indefinite nominal group. Sarah is wise. Carrier Process: relational (intensive) Attribute When a relational process is in the identifying mode, it has two equating participants, one identifying the other, which is referred to respectively in two pairs of terms as identified / identifier and token / value. 11 Tom is the leader. Identified/ Taken Process: relational (intensive) Identifier/ Value 2.3.1.4. Behavioral process Behavioral process is the process of (typically human) physiological and psychological behavior, like breathing, coughing, smiling, dreaming and staring. It is on the borderline between material and mental processes. In this type of process, the only one participant who is “behaving”, labelled Behaver, is typically a conscious being. She cried softly. Behaver Process: behavioral Circumstance According to Halliday (1994: 139), the boundaries of behavioral processes are indeterminate, but we can recognize the following kinds as typical: processes of consciousness represented as forms of behavior: look, watch, stare, listen..., processes as behavior: chatter, grumble, talk... Other physiological processes: breathe, cough, faint..., bodily postures and pastitmes: sing, dance, lie (down)... Normally, there is one participant in a behavioral process. However, the second participant, which is repeated, is called Range. And when the second participant is not a repetition, it is labelled Phenomenon. She laughed an embarrassed laugh. Behaver Process: behavioral Range I smell the rose. Behaver Process: behavioral Phenomenon. 2.3.1.5. Verbal process Verbal process is the process of saying. It expresses the relationship between the ideas constructed in human consciousness and the ideas enacted in the form of language. In addition, it shares the characteristics of mental and relational processes. The participants of the process are: Sayer (the participant who is speaking), Receiver (the addressee to whom the process is directed), Verbiage (what is said in form of a nominal group or an embedded clause), Target (the object of the talk). 12 Verbal process contains one participant referred to as Sayer, two participants referred to respectively as Sayer and Target or Sayer and Verbiage depending on each particular subtype of verbal process, and even three participants are referred to respectively as Sayer, Target and Recipient. I am always praising you to my friends. Sayer Process: verbal Target Recipient The relationship of quoting or reporting is also mentioned in this type of process. She said “go away”. Sayer Process: verbal Quoted She said that she would go away. Sayer Process: verbal Reported 2.3.1.6. Existential processes These processes represent that something exists or happens. Normally, the word “There” is necessary as a subject although it has no representational function. These clauses typically have the verb be, or some other verb expressing existence, such as exist, arise, occur, happen, take place...followed by a nominal group functioning as Existent (a thing which exists in the process). The existent may be a phenomenon of any kind, and is often, in fact, an event. For example: There was Process: existential a storm. Existent: event 2.3.2. Circumstances In systemic functional grammar, the components which are used to express the aspects such as time, place, manner, accompaniment, etc, are called Circumstances (Hoang Van Van, 2005: 325). Typically, they occur freely in all types of process and with the same significance they occur. Circumstances are realized by adverbial groups or prepositional phrases. Halliday (1994: 151) introduces a list of nine main types of circumstantial elements in English: extent, location, manner, cause, contingency, accompaniment, role, matter and angle, which can be represented in Table 2 below: 13